Task-switching Task Research Articles

Pupillary response to cognitive control in depression-prone individuals

Revealing the pupillary correlates of depression-prone individuals is conducive to the early intervention and treatment of depression. This study recruited 31 depression-prone and 31 healthy individuals. They completed an emotional task-switching task combined with a go/no-go task, and task-evoked pupillary responses (TEPR) were recorded. Behavioral results showed no significant differences in behavioral performance in terms of cognitive flexibility and inhibition between the depression-prone group and the healthy control group. The pupillary results revealed that (1) the depression-prone group showed slightly lower TEPRs to positive stimuli than the healthy controls during cue presentation; (2) during target presentation, the depression-prone group did not show an effect of emotional valence on the pupillary response in the task-repeat trials; and (3) compared to the healthy controls, the depression-prone group showed significantly smaller TEPRs to negative no-go stimuli and had a longer latency of the second peak of pupil dilation in no-go trials. These results imply that depression-prone individuals may have slower neural responses in cognitive control tasks and emotion-specific weakened cognitive control than healthy individuals.

Attention control training and transfer effects on cognitive tasks

Attention control is the common element underlying different executive functions. The backward Masking Majority Function Task (MFT-M) requires intensive attention control, and represents a diverse situation where attentional resources need to be allocated dynamically and flexibly to reduce uncertainty. Aiming to train attention control using MFT-M and examine the training transfer effects in various executive functions, we recruited healthy young adults (n = 84) and then equally randomized them into two groups trained with either MFT-M or a sham program for seven consecutive days. Cognitive evaluations were conducted before and after the training, and the electroencephalograph (EEG) signals were recorded for the revised Attention Network Test (ANT-R), N-back, and Task-switching (TS) tasks. Compared to the control group, the training group performed better on the congruent condition of Flanker and the double-congruency condition of Flanker and Location in the ANT-R task, and on the learning trials in the verbal memory test. The training group also showed a larger P2 amplitude decrease and P3 amplitude increase in the 2-back task and a larger P3 amplitude increase in the TS task's repeat condition than the control group, indicating improved neural efficiency in two tasks' attentional processes. Introversion moderated the transfer effects of training, as indicated by the significant group*introversion interactions on the post-training 1-back efficiency and TS switching cost. Our results suggested that attention control training with the MFT-M showed a broad transfer scope, and the transfer effect was influenced by the form of training task. Introversion facilitated the transfer to working memory and hindered the transfer to flexibility.

Motivation and emotional distraction interact and affect executive functions

Previous research on cool-hot executive function (EF) interactions has examined the effects of motivation and emotional distraction on cool EF separately, focusing on one EF component at a time. Although both incentives and emotional distractors have been shown to modulate attention, how they interact and affect cool EF processes is still unclear. Here, we used an experimental paradigm that manipulated updating, inhibition, and shifting demands to determine the interactions of motivation and emotional distraction in the context of cool EF. Forty-five young adults (16 males, 29 females) completed the go/no-go (inhibition), two-back (updating), and task-switching (shifting) tasks. Monetary incentives were implemented to manipulate motivation, and task-irrelevant threatening or neutral faces were presented before the target stimulus to manipulate emotional distraction. We found that incentives significantly improved no-go accuracy, two-back accuracy, and reaction time (RT) switch cost. While emotional distractors had no significant effects on overall task performance, they abolished the incentive effects on no-go accuracy and RT switch cost. Altogether, these findings suggest that motivation and emotional distraction interact in the context of cool EF. Specifically, transient emotional distraction disrupts the upregulation of control activated by incentives. The present investigation has advanced knowledge about the relationship between cool and hot EF and highlights the importance of considering motivation–emotion interactions for a fuller understanding of control.

Effect of homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm on the task-switching: Evidence from drift diffusion model and ERP

The effect of diurnal fluctuations on cognitive functions is widely studied, yet rare research has attempted to separate the role of two crucial processes underlying diurnal fluctuations: homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm. The present study aimed to dissociate their effects by conducting a task-switching task in the morning, napping afternoon, and no-napping afternoon, respectively. Additionally, DDM and ERP were utilized to explore how these two processes differentially affect cognitive processes involved in task-switching. By a within-participant design, 35 healthy adults (20.03 ± 2.01 year-old, 14 males) with an intermediate-type chronotype were recruited in the current study. The results demonstrated that accumulated homeostatic pressure caused reduced accuracy, drift rate, and decision threshold. In the no-napping afternoon, P1 and P2 amplitudes were also decreased due to homeostatic pressure, whereas an afternoon nap could partially restore performance and neural activity. Conversely, the upward circadian rhythm in the afternoon exerted a compensatory effect, resulting in increases in N2 and P3 amplitudes. The findings highlight the disassociated impacts of homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm on the cognitive processes involved in task-switching and further underscore the importance of considering diurnal variation in both scientific research and accident prevention.

Functional Connectivity Alterations of Cognitive Flexibility in Aging: Different Patterns of Global and Local Switch Costs.

Cognitive flexibility declines with aging and is usually indicated by task switch costs including global and local switch costs. Cognitive flexibility in aging is associated with alterations in functional connectivity. However, whether different task-modulated connectivity mechanisms underlying global and local switch costs remain unclear. Here we use the support vector machine to identify age-related functional connectivity in global and local switch costs between older (n = 32) and young adults (n = 33). Participants completed a cued task-switching task during the functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. Results show an age-related decline behaviorally in global but not in local switch costs. Moreover, distinct patterns of age-related alterations of connectivity were observed for each cost. Specifically, only multivariate changes in connectivity patterns were observed for local switch cost, whereas specific age-related connections were revealed for global switch cost. In older adults, the task-modulated left dorsal premotor cortex-left precuneus connectivity decreased, and the left inferior frontal junction-left inferior parietal sulcus connectivity correlated with decreased global switch cost. This study provides novel evidence for different neural patterns in global and local switch costs by illuminating connectivity mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility in aging.

Impaired proactive control in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder: Evidence from ERPs

BackgroundResearch suggests that methamphetamine use is associated with impaired cognitive control, which may contribute to impulsive drug use. Cognitive control is dynamically mediated by proactive and reactive control (reflecting various processing stages of cognitive control with different properties), and it is crucial to determine whether methamphetamine use impairs proactive and/or reactive control. To address this issue, we conducted an event-related potential (ERP) study to examine proactive and reactive control in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). MethodsAbstinent individuals with MUD (n = 25) and healthy controls (HC, n = 27) completed a cued task-switching task while brain electrical activity was recorded. Cue- and target-locked ERP components modulated by task switching were linked to proactive and reactive control, respectively. ResultsNo behavioral differences between the groups were found. However, the HC group showed cue-locked switch-positivity (i.e., more positive amplitudes for switch than repeat trials) in both the early and late time windows, although the MUD group only showed late switch-positivity, which was smaller than the HC group. Independent of switch or congruent condition, the MUD group had smaller target-locked positivity than the HC group. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that individuals with MUD exhibit reduced proactive control and mobilize extra reactive control efforts to compensate. Our study contributes to a better understanding of cognitive control impairment in individuals with MUD and has implications for potential interventions.

Association between intensity or accumulating pattern of physical activity and executive function in community-dwelling older adults: A cross-sectional study with compositional data analysis.

Previous studies have suggested a positive association between physical activity (PA) and executive function in older adults. However, they did not adequately consider the compositional nature of daily time use and accumulated PA patterns. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the association between intensity or accumulated PA patterns and executive functions (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) in community-dwelling older adults, considering the interaction of daily time spent in PA, sedentary behavior (SB), and sleep. This cross-sectional study used baseline data from a randomized controlled trial on the effect of exercise on cognitive function conducted between 2021 and 2022. Data from 76 community-dwelling older adults were used in the analysis. The time spent in PA and SB was assessed using an accelerometer, and sleep duration was self-reported. The Stroop task (inhibitory control), N-back task (working memory), and task-switching task (cognitive flexibility) were conducted to evaluate the subcomponents of executive function. Considering various potential confounders, compositional multiple linear regression analysis and compositional isotemporal substitution were performed to examine the association of PA with executive function and to estimate predicted changes in executive function in response to the hypothetical time-reallocation of movement behaviors, respectively. A longer time spent in light-intensity PA (LPA), relative to remaining behaviors, was associated with better Stroop task performance. Moreover, this association was stronger in LPA lasting longer than 10 min than in sporadic LPA. Additionally, theoretical 30 min/day time reallocation from SB or sleep to LPA was associated with better Stroop task performance (corresponding to approximately a 5%-10% increase). On the other hand, no significant associations of time spent in moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA with any subcomponents of executive function were observed. LPA was positively associated with inhibitory control, and this association was stronger in bouts of LPA than in sporadic LPA. Moreover, reducing the time spent in SB or sleep and increasing the time spent in LPA, especially long-bout LPA, could be important measures for managing inhibitory control in late life. Future large longitudinal and intervention studies are needed to confirm these associations and reveal the causality and underlying mechanisms.

Linking computational models of two core tasks of cognitive control.

Cognitive control refers to the ability to maintain goal-relevant information in the face of distraction, making it a core construct for understanding human thought and behavior. There is great theoretical and practical value in building theories that can be used to explain or to predict variations in cognitive control as a function of experimental manipulations or individual differences. A critical step toward building such theories is determining which latent constructs are shared between laboratory tasks that are designed to measure cognitive control. In the current work, we examine this question in a novel way by formally linking computational models of two canonical cognitive control tasks, the Eriksen flanker and task-switching task. Specifically, we examine whether model parameters that capture cognitive control processes in one task can be swapped across models to make predictions about individual differences in performance on another task. We apply our modeling and analysis to a large scale data set from an online cognitive training platform, which optimizes our ability to detect individual differences in the data. Our results suggest that the flanker and task-switching tasks probe common control processes. This finding supports the view that higher level cognitive control processes as opposed to solely strategies in speed and accuracy tradeoffs, or perceptual processing and motor response speed are shared across the two tasks. We discuss how our computational modeling substitution approach addresses limitations of prior efforts to relate performance across different cognitive control tasks, and how our findings inform current theories of cognitive control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The effects of viewing cute images on the performance of simple computerized tasks in dog owners and non-dog owners.

Viewing cute images of puppies or kittens can improve the performance of various motor tasks due to increased behavioral carefulness. It is possible, however, that this effect can be moderated by the affinity of individuals towards specific cute stimuli. The purpose of this pre-registered study was to examine whether dog ownership moderates the effect of viewing cute images of puppies on two computerized RT-based tasks. One-hundred and sixty-four participants were covertly recruited and randomly assigned to four groups: (1) dog owners viewing puppies' images (n = 35), (2) dog owners viewing adult dogs' images (n = 36), (3) non-dog owners viewing puppies' images (n = 48), and (4) non-dog owners viewing adult dogs' images (n = 45). The participants performed a Simon task and an alternate task-switching task before and after viewing seven images of puppies/adult dogs based on group affiliation. After performing the tasks, the participants rated each image on five characteristics: cuteness, infantility, pleasantness, excitability, and wanting to get closer. The participants who viewed images of puppies rated those characteristics (e.g., cuter, more infantile, etc.) as higher than the participants who viewed images of adult dogs. There were no differences in the performance of the two tasks between participants who viewed images puppies and participants who viewed images of adult dogs. However, dog owners reacted faster than non-dog owners in the post-test of the alternate task-switching task. It is possible that showing images of dogs to dog owners increased their motivation and attention to the task.

Reaction time and working memory in middle-aged gamers and non-gamers

The purpose of this study was to explore whether asking middle-aged gamers and non-gamers about their video games habits will affect their performance of cognitive-motor tasks. One-hundred and twenty-one participants were randomly assigned to four groups: (a) gamers who were asked about their playing habits prior to the study, (b) gamers who were asked about their playing habits following the study, (c) non-gamers who were asked about their playing habits prior to the study, and (d) non-gamers who were asked about their playing habits following the study. The participants performed three reaction time (RT) tasks and a digit-span memory task. In a task-switching task, gamers had more correct responses when they answered the questionnaire before performing the task compared with after the task. For the non-gamers, the opposite occurred. We conclude that some performance measures of cognitive-motor tasks could have been affected by the timing of the completion of the questionnaire. This finding should be known to researchers as it may lead to biases gaming research.

Providing choice of feedback affects perceived choice but does not affect performance.

BackgroundAutonomy or choice can lead to improved learning in various educational domains. The purpose of this online study was to examine whether giving participants a choice regarding the frequency of their received feedback (either after each individual trial or after a block of trials) in a computerized alternate task-switching task, will affect their performance.MethodsParticipants (n = 148) were randomly assigned to three groups: choice group (n = 49), online feedback group (n = 51), and summary feedback group (n = 48). From those three groups we created two groups: a choice group and a no-choice group (n = 49 in each group). All participants performed eight familiarization trials, a pre-test of 24 trials, five blocks of 24 trials for practice, and a post-test of 24 trials. After completing the task, the participants were asked about their perceived feeling of choice and completed the short form of the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.ResultsThe participants in the choice group had higher perceived choice compared with the participants in the no-choice group (8.41 vs 5.47 out of 10, respectively). However, this higher perceived choice did not materialize into better performance during practice or in the post-test.

Reaction time and working memory in gamers and non-gamers

The purpose of this pre-registered study was to examine whether asking gamers and non-gamers about their video game playing habits before or after they performed computerized cognitive-motor tasks affects their performance of those tasks. We recruited 187 participants from an online participants’ recruitment platform. Out of those participants, 131 matched our criteria as gamers or non-gamers. They were then divided to two subgroups, and performed a choice-RT task, a Simon task, an alternate task-switching task, and a digit span memory task either before or after answering a video-game playing habits questionnaire. The results showed that gamers who completed a video-games questionnaire before performing the tasks had faster reaction times (RTs) in the Simon task compared with gamers who answered the questionnaire after performing the tasks. In contrast, non-gamers who answered the questionnaire before the task had slower RTs in the Simon task and the alternate task-switching task compared with non-gamers who answered the questionnaire after performing the tasks. The results suggest that answering a video-games questionnaire before the start of a study can lead to a response expectancy effect—positive for gamers and negative for non-gamers. This may bias findings of studies examining video games and the performance of cognitive-motor tasks.

Processing Speed Predicts Mean Performance in Task-Switching but Not Task-Switching Cost.

In several studies, it has been suggested that task-switching performance is linked to processing speed. Here we argue that the relation between processing speed and high-level cognitive ability found in previous studies may be due to confounded measurements of processing speed and task-switching ability. In the present study, we required participants to complete an inspection time (IT) task to probe their processing speed. We employed conventional task-switching paradigms but applied a linear integrated speed-accuracy score (LISAS) which combines latency and accuracy scores to express task-switching ability. The results of regression analyses show that IT predicted average performance in task-switching paradigms. However, IT did not relate to any specific effects common in the task-switching task, which contradicts previous results. Our results suggest independent mechanisms of processing speed and tasks that require a high level of cognitive flexibility and control.

Viewing Cute Images Does Not Affect Performance of Computerized Reaction Time Tasks.

Humans are emotionally affected by cute or infantile appearances, typical of baby animals and humans, which in turn often leads to careful and cautious behavior. The purpose of this pre-registered study was to examine whether looking at cute images of baby pets improves performance of computerized cognitive-motor tasks. Ninety-eight participants were recruited for this online study and were randomly assigned to two experimental groups. The participants in one group performed two cognitive-motor tasks (Simon task and alternate task-switching task) before and after viewing images of adult pets and the participants in the other group performed the tasks before and after viewing images of baby pets. The participants who viewed images of baby pets rated them as significantly cuter (Cohen’s d = 0.50) and more infantile (Cohen’s d = 1.56) compared with those who viewed images of adult pets. All participants improved their performance from the pre-test to the post-test, but no differences in correct responses and reaction times were seen between the groups. However, pet ownership appeared to serve as a moderating variable with pet owners performing the Simon task faster than non-pet owners. In addition, pet owners reacted faster in the alternate task-switching task after viewing cute and infantile images but not after viewing images of adult pets. This effect was not found among non-pet owners. In conclusion, this study did not find that viewing cute images improves cognitive-motor performance, yet this may be dependent on moderators like pet ownership.

Feasibility of a Home-Based Task-Switching Training in Middle-Aged Caregivers

The current study aimed at investigating feasibility of a self-administered task-switching training in a middle-aged working population. Eighty-one caregivers (41–62 years old) were instructed to train at home 8 times either within a 7- or 14-day interval. Only 56.7% performed more than 50% of the instructed number of training sessions. However, compliant caregivers (who completed more than 4 training sessions) showed significant training gains and transfer to an untrained task-switching task. Although transfer effects to other cognitive tasks were not found, trained participants tended to report fewer everyday memory failures than a control group. In conclusion, the implementation of a home-based task-switching training in everyday life of caregivers is possible. However, there is only limited evidence for generalization of results of previous laboratory studies. Adherence and transfer to other cognitive tasks are discussed as important challenges in conveying laboratory findings into real life.

Atypical Neural Responses of Cognitive Flexibility in Parents of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Impaired cognitive flexibility has been repeatedly demonstrated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). There is strong evidence for genetic involvement in ASD. First-degree relatives of individuals with ASD may show mild deficits in cognitive inflexibility. The present study investigated cognitive flexibility and its neuroelectrophysiological mechanisms in first-degree relatives of individuals with ASD to assess its potential familiality. Forty-five biological parents of individuals/children with ASD (pASD) and thirty-one biological parents of typically developing individuals/children (pTD), matched by gender, age, and IQ, were enrolled. The broad autism phenotype questionnaire (BAPQ) and cognitive flexibility inventory (CFI) were used to quantitatively assess autistic traits and cognitive flexibility in daily life, respectively. The task-switching paradigm was used to evaluate the behavioral flexibility in a structured assessment situation. Event-related potentials (ERPs) induced by this paradigm were also collected. Results showed that compared with the pTD group, the pASD group had lower CFI scores (t = −2.756, p < 0.01), while both groups showed an equivalent “switch cost” in the task-switching task (p > 0.05). Compared with the pTD group, the pASD group induced greater N2 amplitude at F3, F4, Fz, and C4 (F = 3.223, p < 0.05), while P3 amplitude and latency did not differ between the two groups. In addition, there was a significant negative correlation between the CFI total scores and BAPQ total scores in the pASD group (r = −0.734, p < 0.01). After controlling for age and IQ, the N2 amplitude in the frontal lobe of pASD was negatively correlated with the CFI total scores under the repetition sequence (r = −0.304, p = 0.053). These results indicated that pASD had deficit in cognitive flexibility at the self-reported and neurological levels. The cognitive flexibility difficulties of parents of children with ASD were related to autistic traits. These findings support that cognitive flexibility is most likely a neurocognitive endophenotype of ASD, which is worthy of further investigation.

Rethinking cognitive training: The moderating roles of emotional vulnerability and perceived cognitive impact of training in high worriers

Trait worry is a hallmark feature of anxiety and depression, interfering with attentional control and impairing cognitive performance. Previous research has shown the adaptive dual n-back training is effective in improving attentional control and reducing emotional vulnerability, but not for everyone. The current randomised controlled trial explored the role of baseline emotional vulnerability and perceived cognitive impact in training-related cognitive and emotional improvements in 60 high worriers randomly assigned to 10 sessions of the adaptive dual n-back training or non-adaptive 1-back training. Pre-training, post-training and one-month follow-up measures of cognitive performance were assessed using an emotional Flanker task, a cued task-switching task, and the MaRs-IB task. Self-report questionnaires assessed worry, anxiety, depression, somatisation, and self-efficacy, as well as participants’ perceived cognitive impact of the training. Participants with higher levels of baseline emotional vulnerability presented the largest improvements in non-verbal reasoning and emotional vulnerability one month after the training, as well as the greatest perceived cognitive impact. Perceived cognitive impact was predicted by working memory improvement on the adaptive n-back training at high baseline levels of anxiety. These results suggest that the adaptive n-back training presents the greatest emotional and cognitive benefits for individuals experiencing severe levels of emotional vulnerability.

284 Cognitive Deficits due to Insufficient Sleep are Mitigated Following Strenuous Physical Exertion in Firefighters

Abstract Introduction Insufficient sleep impairs cognitive function which results in costly errors. Firefighter shifts regularly exceed 24-hrs with little to no sleep. Nevertheless, firefighters must maintain and flexibly shift attention in high-pressure scenarios. Firefighters also engage in strenuous physical exertion during fire suppression activities. However, it is unclear whether physical exertion acts as another stressor, exasperating cognitive deficits due to insufficient sleep, or whether physical exertion enhances arousal to reduce cognitive deficits. Moreover, the effects of physical exertion may depend on the type of cognitive process and extent of sleep loss. We examined the effect of physical exertion on vigilant attention and task-switching in firefighters who underwent sleep-deprivation or sleep-disruption. Methods Participants were 17 healthy young adult males who participated in a within-subjects crossover design with three experimental lab visits: sleep-deprivation, sleep-disruption (woken 3 times for 60-min each), and normal sleep. The next day, participants completed a 50-min treadmill exercise task in a heated room in firefighter protective clothing. Participants completed a vigilant attention task (Psychomotor Vigilance Task, PVT) and a task-switching task five to nine times each visit. The five timepoints of interest–before and after the sleep manipulation night, before and after the treadmill exercise task, and recovery (approximately 180-min following exercise)–were examined using linear mixed effects models. Results We analyzed lapses (reaction times [RT]&amp;gt;500ms) on the PVT and switch-trial RT and accuracy on the task-switching task for sleep-deprivation and sleep-disruption conditions relative to normal sleep. Sleep-disruption, p=.001, and sleep-deprivation, p&amp;lt;.001, increased lapses. Sleep-disruption increased switch-trial RT, p=.01, and sleep-deprivation reduced switch-trial accuracy, p=.01. Only switch-trial accuracy improved immediately after the treadmill exercise task and only for the sleep-deprivation condition, p=.01. During recovery, lapses lessened for the sleep-deprivation condition, p=.049, and switch-trial accuracy improved for both sleep-deprivation, p=.01, and sleep-disruption conditions, p=.049. Conclusion Physical exertion reduced task-switching and attentional deficits caused by insufficient sleep, with more benefits observed during recovery. We found no evidence for performance decrements due to physical exertion. Physical exertion may interact with the extent of sleep loss–primarily benefitting performance under conditions of total sleep-deprivation. Support (if any) DSF Charitable Foundation and University of Pittsburgh Clinical and Translational Science Institute UL1TR001857.

Effects of Computerized Working-Memory Training with EEG-Based Assessment—

Because training appears to affect working memory, early evaluation and training may help to improve working memory capacity. The aim of this study was to develop a computerized platform that employs electroencephalography (EEG) to investigate the effects of working-memory training. The platform included two systems: (i) in the assessment system we designed n-back paradigms and estimated synchronization index between the theta and gamma bands with working memory index (WMI) verification, while (ii) in the improvement system we designed working-memory training tasks based on three categories—a numerical version of a complex-span task, a figure-based version of a task-switching task, and a matrix version of a pattern task. Twenty-eight healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to the passive control and experimental groups. Significant correlations between WMI and level of difficulty were found for the numerical complex-span task and the pattern-integration task which suggested that training can improve working memory performance. Furthermore, the EEG coupling analysis revealed significantly different in the theta-band phase and high-gamma-band power (i.e., 70–90 Hz) at FC1 which could be used to uncover relationships with the working memory. The system estimating the brainwave responses provided a complementary way of quantifying the degree of working memory other than using a psychophysical questionnaire. Furthermore, it could be simply and rapidly modified for implementing different training tasks, with features of flexibility, low cost, and minimal development time.

The Effect of Bilingualism on Cue-Based vs. Memory-Based Task Switching in Older Adults.

Findings suggest a positive impact of bilingualism on cognition, including the later onset of dementia. However, it is not clear to what extent these effects are influenced by variations in attentional control demands in response to specific task requirements. In this study, 20 bilingual and 20 monolingual older adults performed a task-switching task under explicit task-cuing vs. memory-based switching conditions. In the cued condition, task switches occurred in random order and a visual cue signaled the next task to be performed. In the memory-based condition, the task alternated after every second trial in a predictable sequence without presenting a cue. The performance of bilinguals did not vary across experimental conditions, whereas monolinguals experienced a pronounced increase in response latencies and error rates in the cued condition. Both groups produced similar switch costs (difference in performance on switch trials as opposed to repeating trials within the mixed-task block) and mixing costs (difference in performance on repeat trials of a mixed-task block as opposed to trials of a single-task block), but bilinguals produced them with lower response latencies. The cognitive benefits of bilingualism seem not to apply to executive functions per se but to affect specific cognitive processes that involve task-relevant context processing. The present results suggest that lifelong bilingualism could promote in older adults a flexible adjustment to environmental cues, but only with increased task demands. However, due to the small sample size, the results should be interpreted with caution.