Task-approach Goals Research Articles

Effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performances for kindergarteners.

Studies have investigated the effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performance above the elementary-school level. However, few studies have explored this topic among kindergarteners based on sound theoretical frameworks. Through the enrollment of 15 kindergarten teachers and 180 kindergarteners, this study re-validated newly developed measurements of kindergarteners' achievement goals and learning interests and used these measures to further clarify the effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performances using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that (1) task-approach goals have positive effects on situational interest and advanced arithmetic performance, whereas task-avoidance goals have positive effects on individual interest. (2) Self-based goals have null effects on most learning interests and mathematics performance, but they have significant negative effects on numbering and counting performance. However, most of these null effects represent negative tendencies. (3) Other-approach goals have positive effects on situational interest and basic arithmetic performance, whereas other-avoidance goals have null effects on these outcomes but have an almost significant positive effect on numbering and counting performance. (4) Task-based goals and self-approach goals are generally beneficial for learning interests and mathematics performance. These results suggest that task-based goals and other-approach goals may be implemented with consideration of the potential long-term detrimental effects of social comparison on learning outcomes. Furthermore, possible negative effects of self-based goals must be monitored to prevent them from undermining learning outcomes. This study revealed consistent, inconsistent, and new evidence that, respectively, verifies, complements, and contradicts findings on the learning outcomes of students above the elementary-school level.

Investigating the Discriminant Utility of Task-Based and Self-Based Goals in 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Model for Kindergarteners.

A decade ago, achievement goal theorists argued that mastery-based goals in the traditional theoretical framework can be theoretically differentiated into task-based goals and self-based goals; and they proposed the 3 × 2 achievement goal model to understand students' achievement motivation. This new theoretical model has received increasing attention, and it has been demonstrated by several empirical studies on school-aged student samples through analyzing concurrently derived data. Recently, researcher has preliminary demonstrated the new theoretical model on kindergarten sample. It is unclear whether there was a discriminant utility of these goals for kindergartener sample through analyzing their concurrent and predictive effects on learning outcomes. The main purposes of this study were to investigate discriminant utility of task-based goals and self-based goals through examining their concurrent and predictive effects on mathematics performances. A total of 59 kindergarteners aged 5 years consented to participating in this study. Results showed: (1) The discriminant utility of task-approach goal and self-approach goal was only demonstrated on predictive arithmetic performance. (2) The discriminant utility of task-avoidance goal and self-avoidance goal was demonstrated on both concurrent and predictive counting performances. Implications for advancing achievement goal theory, future research, and practice are discussed at the end of the article.

Sustainable Development of Mastery Goals and Innovative Behavior: Evidence from Chinese Faculty Members

It is well-acknowledged that organizational sustainability largely depends on employees’ innovative behavior, which is the same case with higher education institutions. This study aimed to explore the characteristics of and relationships between faculty members’ mastery goals and innovative behavior under the framework of achievement goal theory in the research context. Results from an anonymous questionnaire survey of 621 Chinese faculty members revealed a four-dimensional structure of mastery goals (task-approach goals, task-avoidance goals, learning-approach goals, and learning-avoidance goals) and a five-dimensional structure of innovative research behavior (opportunity exploration, generativity, formative investigation, championing, and application). The faculty members reported a high level of mastery goals for research and a moderate level of innovative research behavior respectively. Male faculty scored higher on opportunity exploration, formative investigation, championing, and application than their female counterparts. Innovative research behavior showed significantly positive associations with task-approach goals, negative associations with learning-approach goals, and no significant association with mastery-avoidance goals except the positive link of learning-avoidance goals to championing. These results have implications for understanding faculty research motivations and behaviors and effectively stimulating their innovativeness in research for sustainable development of higher education institutions.

Goal Orientation and Its Impact on University Students’ Academic Achievement During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The study explored (1) the relationship between university students’ goal orientations (according to the 3 × 2 model) and their academic achievement during COVID-19 pandemic, (2) differences in academic achievement by students’ levels in goal orientations, and (3) differences in university students’ goal orientations and academic achievement by gender, specialization, study level, and the interaction among them. Participants were 149 male and female students whose ages ranged between 18 and 42. The instrument used to collect data was the 3 × 2 (task-approach goals, task-avoidance goals, self-approach goals, self-avoidance goals, other-approach goal, and other-avoidance goals) Achievement Goal Questionnaire. A statistically significant relationship was found between goal orientations and academic achievement of university students. Total goal orientations did not affect students’ academic achievement during COVID-19 pandemic. However, self-avoidance goals and other-approach goals affected academic performance in favor of the average level of self-avoidance and the high level of other-approach. No statistically significant differences in goal orientations and academic achievement were found by gender. Yet, significant differences were found by specialization, the interaction between study level and gender, the interaction between specialization and gender, and the interaction among the three variables.

Цели учебных достижений и направленность личности в структуре учебной мотивации подростков

Learning motivation is a complex structure, which includes not only motives, but also other components. Today, more and more researchers are studying the constructs included in the structure of learning motivation. The paper presents results of a study (N=342) aimed at exploration of the educational achievement goals (3x2 model of Elliot’s achievement goal theory) and personality orientation (L.I. Bozhovich conception) and their connection with learning motivation of older adolescents. The sample consists of school students (N=175) and college students (N=167), 140 males and 202 females. 3x2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire, Bass Orientation Inventory and Academic Motivation Scale for Schoolchildren are used. According to the results obtained the learning achievement goals and personality orientation are connected with other constructs of educational motivation of older adolescents. The desire to learn with pleasure, solve difficult tasks and to develop is most characteristic of students with task-based personality orientation. Amotivation, the desire to perform better than others, achieve respect from parents is mostly characteristic of students with self-based orientation. Interaction orientation has negative correlation with motivation for achievement, for self-development and with task-approach goals, task-avoidance goals, other-approach goals, other-avoidance goals. College students demonstrate higher learning motivation, achievement motivation and self-development motivation compering to school students. Males demonstrate higher level of amotivation than females.

Intra-individual changes in 3x2 achievement goals, friendship goals, motivational regulations and consequences in physical education

Introduction: This research examines intraindividual changes in 3x2 achievement goals in physical education classes during one semester, as well as the relationship of these changes with those in other motivational and outcome variables. Method: A total of 334 (178 boys and 156 girls) high school students (M = 13.12, SD = 1.05) completed five questionnaires in two different school years. Results: The results of the true intraindividual change model (TIC) provided unequivocal support for the separation of task-based and self-based goals, as well as the structures based on both valences of approach and avoidance. They also showed different intraindividual change patterns in the 3x2 achievement goals, indicating a progression in the stability of the goals depending on their definition. Intraindividual variability in achievement goals is directly related to intraindividual variability in dependent variables, with the task-approach goals TIC being the most adaptive. Conclusions: These goals should be prioritized.

Predicting test anxiety using the 3x2 achievement goal model

ABSTRACT Past research has demonstrated that the reasons underlying students’ decisions to engage in academic tasks (i.e., achievement goals) are associated with the experience of test anxiety. Empirical investigations focused on the association between achievement goals and test anxiety have historically been guided by the dichotomous, trichotomous, and 2 × 2 achievement goal models. However, few investigations have explored the association between achievement goals and test anxiety using the newly developed 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Therefore, the current study was designed to determine if task-approach, task-avoidance, self-approach, self-avoidance, other-approach, and other-avoidance goal orientations are associated with cognitive, physical, and social dimensions of test anxiety. Participants (N = 482) completed the 3 × 2 achievement goal questionnaire, the reactions to tests instrument, and the social derogation subscale of the FRIEDBEN test anxiety scale. Results indicated that after controlling for important covariates, task-approach goals were a negative predictor of worry, test-irrelevant thinking, tension, bodily symptoms, and fear of social derogation. Interestingly, the results of the current examination highlight that the endorsement of other-avoidance goals is associated with an increased fear of social derogation. The discussion explores how efforts to promote task-approach focused goals may be an effective method of reducing test anxiety within undergraduate and graduate populations.

Aprendizaje cooperativo y metas de aproximación en educación física: el rol discriminante de la responsabilidad individual

The aim of the present study is two-fold: (a) to analyze whether the cooperative learning factors discriminate the different approach goals of the 3×2 achievement goals model and, consequently, (b) to assess the role that can play educational stage. A total of 1292 students participate (660 men and 632 women) belonging to the educational stages of primary (580), secondary (531) and baccalaureate (181), with ages between 10 and 19 years (M=13.05, SD=2.45). The CAC and CML 3×2-EF questionnaires are administered as data collection instruments. The results of the discriminant analysis have shown that the cooperative learning factors are predictors of the approach goals, highlighting the individual responsibility factor for the task-approach goals (TAG) and self-approach goals (SAG), this being the least discriminant for the other-approach goals. In addition, the results of the decision tree analysis indicate that in primary education, secondary education and baccalaureate, the students with the highest level in TAG and SAG are those that score the highest in individual responsibility. These findings reflect the importance of individual responsibility so that physical education students show more adaptive patterns such as TAG and SAG.

Cooperative learning and approach goals in physical education: The discriminant role of individual accountability

The aim of the present study is two-fold: (a) to analyze whether the cooperative learning (CL) factors discriminate the different approach goals of the 3 × 2 achievement goals model and, consequently, (b) to assess the role that can play educational stage. A total of 1292 students participate (660 men and 632 women) belonging to the educational stages of primary (580), secondary (531) and baccalaureate (181), with ages between 10 and 19 years (M = 13.05, SD = 2.45). The CAC and CML 3 × 2-EF questionnaires are administered as data collection instruments. The results of the discriminant analysis have shown that the cooperative learning factors are predictors of the approach goals, highlighting the individual responsibility factor for the task-approach goals (TAG) and self-approach goals (SAG), this being the least discriminant for the other-approach goals (OAG). In addition, the results of the decision tree analysis indicate that in primary education, secondary education and baccalaureate, the students with the highest level in TAG and SAG are those that score the highest in individual responsibility. These findings reflect the importance of individual responsibility so that physical education students show more adaptive patterns such as TAG and SAG.

Approach-achievement goals and motivational context on psycho-physiological functioning and performance among novice basketball players

ObjectivesDrawing from an integrated motivational model (Vansteenkiste, Lens, Elliot, Soenens, & Mouratidis, 2014), this study tested the impact of induced approach-based achievement goal states under different motivational contexts on the psycho-physiological functioning and motor task performance of novice basketball players. DesignA 3 × 2 (Goal [task-/self-/other-approach] x Context [autonomy-supportive/controlling]) repeated measures experimental design was employed. Method114 novice participants (Mage = 23.53; SD = 4.56) performed a basketball shooting task. They were subsequently randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions before repeating this task. Physiological (heart rate [HR] and blood pressure [BP]) and psychological (stress appraisals, state anxiety, task enjoyment, perceived competence, and goal attainment) data were captured at different intervals throughout the experiment. ResultsFactorial ANOVAs revealed participants: 1) performing under a controlling motivational context reported significantly higher HR (p < .001) and systolic BP (p < .05) post-task compared to those operating within an autonomy-supportive environment, 2) induced to an other-approach goal group, recorded significantly higher diastolic BP (p < .05) than those induced to self- and task-approach goals post-task, 3) adopting a task-approach goal under controlling conditions appraised the shooting task as significantly more threatening (p < .05) than their counterparts in the task-approach autonomy-supportive condition, and finally, 4) following approach-based goals under an autonomy-supportive context significantly improved their performance (p < .001) from pre-to post-shooting task. ConclusionsOur findings provide limited support for an integrated motivational model and are discussed in relation to their unique theoretical and practical utility.

Perceived Competence, Achievement Goals, and Return-To-Sport Outcomes: A Mediation Analysis.

The purpose of this study was to explore the potential mediating effect of achievement goals on perceived competence and return-to-sport outcomes among college athletes sustaining a sport injury. Altogether, 75 male and female college athletes from the United States who returned to sport after having missed competition for an average of 3 weeks due to injury, completed valid and reliable inventories measuring perceived competence, achievement goals, and return-to-sport outcomes. Results indicated that task-approach goals significantly mediated the relationship between perceived competence and a renewed sport perspective. These data suggest the importance of promoting competence beliefs and a task-oriented focus among athletes returning to sport following athletic injury. From a practical standpoint, clinicians can foster competence perceptions by integrating progressive physical tests assessing functionality and sport-specific skills/abilities. Furthermore, these data suggest that coaches, physical therapists, and significant others may do well to use language that orients injured athletes towards attaining success as opposed to avoiding failure, to emphasize effort, task completion, and correct form, and to avoid comments that compare athletes to others or to their preinjury standards of performance. From a theoretical standpoint, our mediation findings extend previous achievement goal research into the sport injury domain, further highlighting the importance of task-approach goals.

Active exercisers with a higher orientation toward task-approach goal might experience higher happiness: the mediating role of dispositional self-control

Active exercisers engage in physical activity or training sessions with intentions that are inherently influenced by stable orientations toward achievement goals (i.e. self-regulatory representations about specific outcomes that influence one’s behaviour). Using the 3 × 2 achievement goals framework in the leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) setting, the purpose of this study was to examine the development of happiness (i.e. short-term and temporary contentment) in active exercisers by testing a model in which dispositional self-control (i.e. stable capability of the self to initiate goal-directed behaviours and inhibit goal-disruptive behaviours) played the role of mediator between goal orientations and happiness. Five hundred nine active exercisers (329 females and 180 males, M age = 32.42, SD age = 10.85, from 18 to 65 years old) answered questionnaires on LTPA amount, orientations toward achievement goals for LTPA, dispositional self-control, and happiness. We conducted correlation and structural equation model analyses. Results revealed that: (a) orientation toward task-approach goal (i.e. stable tendency to desire to perform well) positively predicted dispositional self-control and happiness; (b) orientation toward self-avoidance goal (i.e. stable tendency to desire to avoid performing worse than before) negatively predicted dispositional self-control and happiness; and (c) dispositional self-control partially mediated the positive effect of orientation toward task-approach goal on happiness. This study suggests that task-approach goal (or self-avoidance goal) can spark adaptive (or maladaptive) effects in terms of self-regulation and happiness. Theoretical and practical implications for the study of the relationships between achievement goals, self-regulation, and happiness are discussed.

Does Mastery of Goal Components Mediate the Relationship between Metacognition and Mathematical Modelling Competency?

Prior studies suggested close correlations among metacognition, mastery goal, and mathematical modelling competency. The present study examines the relationship between metacognition and mastery goal that may influence mathematical modelling competency. The current study employs 538 students of a mathematics education program; among these students, 483 (89.8%) are males and 55 (10.2%) are females, aged from 18 to 22 years old. The study follows a correlational research design to investigate and measure the degree of relationship among mathematical modelling competencies, mastery goal, and metacognition. Findings indicate that mastery goal positively affects mathematical modelling competency. SEM analysis indicates significant and positive influence of task-and self-approach goals on mathematical modelling competency, whereas task-avoidance goals are significantly and negatively related to mathematical modelling competency. By contrast, self-avoidance goals did not affect mathematical modelling competency. Task-approach goal is a positive partial mediator, task-avoidance goal is a negative partial mediator, self-approach goal is a positive full mediator, and self-avoidance goal is not a mediator between metacognition and mathematical modelling competency. In conclusion, metacognition positively affects the mathematical modelling competency of students, which is influenced by task-approach, task-avoidance, and self-approach goal but not self-avoidance goal.

Efecto de las metas de logro y las estructuras de metas de clase 3x2 en la motivación autodeterminada: un análisis multinivel en educación secundaria

The study faces two objectives: (a) to examine the construct validity of the &lt;em&gt;3x2 Classroom Goal Structures Questionnaire&lt;/em&gt;, and (b) to jointly analyze the influence of the classroom goal structures and 3x2 achievement goals on high school students’ self-determined motivation. 2284 students participated (51.6% men and 48.4% women) aged 12-17 years (&lt;em&gt;M&lt;/em&gt; = 14.31 years, &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; = 1.15), from 148 classrooms. The results of confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized model. The validity and internal consistency of the questionnaire were satisfactory. The results of hierarchical linear models provided support to the direct, indirect and interaction models. Regarding direct effects, self-approach structure, and self-approach and task-approach goals were positive predictors of self-determined motivation, whereas the other-approach structure, and other-approach and task-avoidance goals were negative predictors. In relation to indirect effects, the results revealed that the three approach goals, and task-avoidance goals were partial mediators of the relationship between the self-approach structure and self-determined motivation, whereas other-approach goals were partial mediators in the relationship with their parallel structure. Regarding the interaction effects, the relationship between task-approach goals and self-determination varied depending on the other-approach structure.

Motivational climates: assessing and testing how science classroom environments contribute to undergraduates’ self-determined and achievement-based science goals

The current research examined the psychometric properties and utility of a measure of college classroom environment in predicting goal-related outcomes rooted in goal contents and achievement goal theories. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in Studies 1 and 2, respectively, yielded support for two distinct and gender-invariant classroom environment constructs—professorial concern and affiliation. Results of multilevel regression analyses in Study 3 indicated that both constructs were positive predictors of intrinsic and self-approach goals. Additionally, professorial concern was a significant positive predictor of extrinsic goal adoption. Contrary to expectation, perceptions of affiliation in the science classroom were unrelated to task-approach goals. These findings illustrate the important role that socially dynamic classroom contexts play in fostering motivation and satisfying basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Students' Achievement Goals, Learning-Related Emotions and Academic Achievement.

In the present research, the recently proposed 3 × 2 model of achievement goals is tested and associations with achievement emotions and their joint influence on academic achievement are investigated. The study was conducted with 388 students using the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire including the six proposed goal constructs (task-approach, task-avoidance, self-approach, self-avoidance, other-approach, other-avoidance) and the enjoyment and boredom scales from the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire. Exam grades were used as an indicator of academic achievement. Findings from CFAs provided strong support for the proposed structure of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Self-based goals, other-based goals and task-approach goals predicted enjoyment. Task-approach goals negatively predicted boredom. Task-approach and other-approach predicted achievement. The indirect effects of achievement goals through emotion variables on achievement were assessed using bias-corrected bootstrapping. No mediation effects were found. Implications for educational practice are discussed.

The Relationship Between Goal Setting and Students' Experience of Academic Test Anxiety

Previous studies have established that higher test anxiety (TA) is related to achievement goals with an avoidance valence. However, comprehensive empirical examination of relations between the recently proposed 3 × 2 model of achievement goals (self, task, and other-referenced goals along an approach-avoidance dimension) and test anxiety has yet to be undertaken. To address this gap, self-reported data were collected from 286 undergraduate students from England, Australia, and Singapore. Variable-centered regression analyses revealed the novel finding that over and above the influence of a range of covariates, including academic self-efficacy, a greater task-approach goal was associated with lower test-irrelevant thinking and bodily symptoms of TA. Further, a higher other-avoidance goal was related to higher worry and tension. Cluster analyses demonstrated that students tended to endorse multiple goals and, notably, strongly endorsed self and task goals above other-related achievement goals. Educational and clinical implications of these findings are: firstly, one may simultaneously endorse multiple achievement goals in profiles that can be associated with elevated or reduced TA, and secondly, the previously reported effects of mastery-approach goals on TA may have been largely related to the influence of subsumed task-related goals. Results have implications for the management of students with debilitating TA.

Motivational climate, goal orientation, perceived sport ability, and enjoyment within Finnish junior ice hockey players.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relations among situational motivational climate, dispositional approach and avoidance achievement goals, perceived sport ability, and enjoyment in Finnish male junior ice hockey players. The sample comprised 265 junior B-level male players with a mean age of 17.03 years (SD = 0.63). Players filled questionnaires tapping their perceptions of coach motivational climate, achievement goals, perceived sport ability, and enjoyment. For the statistical analysis, players were divided into high and low perceived sport ability groups. Multigroup structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed an indirect path from task-involving motivational climate via task-approach goal to enjoyment. Additionally, SEM demonstrated four other direct associations, which existed in both perceived ability groups: from ego-involving motivational climate to ego-approach and ego-avoidance goals; from ego-approach goal to ego-avoidance goal; and from task-avoidance goal to ego-avoidance goal. Additionally, in the high perceived sport ability group, there was an association from task-involving motivational climate to enjoyment. The results of this study reveal that motivational climate emphasizing effort, personal development and improvement, and achievement goal mastering tasks are significant elements of enjoyment in junior ice hockey.

Perfectionism and exam performance: The mediating effect of task-approach goals

Perfectionistic strivings are positively correlated with students’ achievement goals and exam performance. However, so far no study has employed a prospective design investigating whether achievement goals mediate the positive relationship between perfectionistic strivings and exam performance. In the present study, 100 university students completed a measure of self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and received a chapter from a textbook to study for 2–4days. Then they returned to the lab to complete a measure of achievement goals following the 3×2 model (Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011) and sit a mock exam testing their knowledge of the chapter. Multiple regressions showed that socially prescribed perfectionism negatively predicted exam performance when the overlap with self-oriented perfectionism was controlled for. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism—a defining indicator of perfectionistic strivings—positively predicted exam performance. Moreover, task-approach goals mediated the positive relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and exam performance. The findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings make students adopt task-approach goals that help them achieve better results on exams.

Investigating the experience of outdoor and adventurous project work in an educational setting using a self-determination framework

The purpose of this study was to carry out a preliminary investigation to explore the use of outdoor and adventurous project work (PW) within an educational setting. Specifically, differences between the PW and normal academic school experiences were examined using a self-determination theory framework integrated with a goal orientation and psychological skills perspective. Additionally, an exploratory investigation was carried out to examine the extent to which key motivation constructs predicted skill development (i.e. problem solving, collaboration and communication) through the PW experience. Six questionnaires were adapted and utilised to collect the relevant data for both school and PW experiences (Basic Psychological Needs questionnaire; the Learning Climate Questionnaire; Intrinsic Motivation Inventory; the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire; 2 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire and perceived skills learned in PW questionnaire) from the 224 students (Mean age 13.2 ± 0.3 years) who participated in the 12-day PW. Results indicated that there were significant differences between school and PW experience ( p &lt; 0.01). Specifically, PW experience rated higher in autonomy supportive climate, autonomous motivation, perceived competence, and a greater emphasis on task approach goal orientation. Furthermore as a cohort, the students reported improvements in problem solving, collaboration and communication as a result of the PW experience. Finally, an exploratory hierarchical regression analysis revealed potential importance of perceived value, utilising meta-cognitive skills, and experiencing relatedness and autonomy in the prediction of skill development through PW experiences. The findings of this study present preliminary support the potential usefulness of outdoor and adventurous PW within a school context and provide implications for future research which are discussed further.