EU Targets Research Articles

Integrated Climate Change Mitigation and Public Health Protection Strategies: The Case of the City of Bologna, Italy.

The ongoing process of global warming, driven by the escalating concentration of greenhouse gases generated by human activities, especially in urban areas, significantly impacts public health. Local authorities play an important role in health promotion and disease prevention, and some aim to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions. There is a consistent action underway to reach this goal, hence the need for mapping and implementing effective strategies and regulations. This study includes the analysis of policy guidelines adopted by the city of Bologna, consulted in March and April 2024. Bologna is one of the 100 cities committed to achieving climate neutrality by 2030, 20 years ahead of the EU target. To identify the strategies adopted to mitigate climate change, the following methodology was used: (i) the systematic mapping of sources and spatial planning documents; (ii) the extrapolation of goals, measures, and target indicators; and (iii) the development of an overall matrix. The main findings of the study and their connection to public health pertain to the identification of key macro-areas contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, while reducing the impact of climate change on health: (1) built environment and renewable energy sources, (2) transport and mobility, (3) energy, (4) green areas and land use, and (5) citizen support. Within these five macro-areas, 14 goals have been identified, to which a total of 36 measures correspond, and, finally, a target indicator is determined, mainly with respect to the reduction of tons of CO2 equivalent per year. In order to protect public health, it is evident that buildings and urban activities should not produce carbon emissions throughout their lifecycle. This paper presents a method to evaluate municipal policies regarding dual-impact solutions that address both environmental protection through sustainability strategies and public health, in compliance with the Health in All Policies (HiAP) approach.

The EU target for organic farming: Potential economic and environmental impacts of two alternative pathways

The EU target for organic farming: Potential economic and environmental impacts of two alternative pathways

EU emissions trading in the buildings sector – an ex-ante assessment

ABSTRACT The EU ETS is one of the first emissions trading schemes in the world and has contributed to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the sectors covered by the scheme in recent years. The EU has adopted the introduction of a new, separate emissions trading scheme (ETS 2) for the buildings and transport sectors as well additional sectors. In our paper we estimate the impact of the new ETS 2 on the buildings sector. We calculate the greenhouse gas emission reduction in the year 2030 using an approach based on price elasticities. We further discuss the impact of the ETS 2 on cost-effectiveness of heat pump deployment in the EU Member States to outline an example of longer-term effects on investments. The results show that with a carbon price of 45 Euro per ton the impact ranges between three and seven Million tons of greenhouse gas emission reductions. Even with optimistic assumptions on the reaction of building owners, the overall contribution of the ETS 2 to meeting the EU target for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the year 2030 is limited. The results furthermore show that the carbon price needed to make heat pumps competitive in the use phase differs largely between the Member States, where in three Member States the required level exceeds 100€/t CO2eq. We conclude that in addition to carbon pricing under the ETS 2, a strong policy framework is needed for the transition of the buildings sector. Key policy insights The new carbon pricing scheme in ETS 2 contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in buildings in the EU, however its impact on the EU energy and climate targets for the year 2030 is limited. Carbon pricing supports the diffusion of heat pumps, however a price of 45 €/t is insufficient to make heat pumps competitive even in the operation phase in several countries. Due to the low price elasticities and the long investment cycles in the buildings sector, a strong policy mix is needed in addition to carbon pricing.

The draft update of Italy energy-climate plan: A critical review

The draft Plan presented by the Italian Government in July 2023 (NECP-23) is more than an update of the NECP submitted in 2019 for many reasons: the change of political majority, with different points of view from the previous one, has added to the significant increase in the EU's targets for 2030 and the change in the international energy landscape that began with the invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Italy's NECP-23 is very complex and time-consuming to review because it must comply with the extremely detailed requirements of the Governance Regulation of the Energy Union along five dimensions. To simplify the task, this article focuses above all on the three traditional EU goals: reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing energy efficiency and expanding the share of renewable sources (RES). The first part presents the objectives and results that Italy expects to achieve by 2030 with existing policies and with additional measures, some of which will however be indicated in the final version of the updated Plan to be sent in 2024. Then, among the "at least 125" tools and measures that the Plan says have been adopted to achieve the targets set by the EU for Italy, a few considered fundamental are examined, also indicating what the past experience has been. Finally, after having noted that the draft plan states that Italy will encounter diffi- culties in reducing emissions and energy consumption as requested by the EU while she be- lieves that the RES development targets can be attained, the possibility that the main policies contained in the plan can give the expected results is assessed.

Overview of the support of geothermal energy investments in the programming period 2014-2020 in Hungary

Geothermal energy has great potential to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of the energy sector, thus contributing to the realization of EU targets and, of course, those ones set for Hungary. The country has excellent geological and geographical conditions, well known due to the existing databases as well as the know-how to guarantee a high-level utilization of this renewable energy source. Still, only a small part of the estimated potential is utilized and the previous programming period, 2014-2020 did not change this situation significantly. On one hand, the poor planning of the Széchenyi 2020 Programme, on the other hand, the lack of risk management measures, discourage investors and provide a competitive advantage for other renewable energy systems over geothermal, especially for biomass. The present paper pro- vides a comprehensive overview of the EU co-financed support of geothermal energy in the period 2014-2020, identifying relevant calls and successful projects. A questionnaire survey among successful applicants is the other pillar of the article. The critical analysis and recom- mendations of the development policy may contribute to a more efficient support of geother- mal energy in the following programming period(s).

Food waste and the EU target: effects on the agrifood systems’ sustainability

ABSTRACT The reduction of food losses and waste is part of the 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals (target 12.3) and, consequently, is one of the EU’s political priority in the field of circular economy. In this framework, the target 12.3 of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development stated, by 2030, a not quantified reduction in post-harvest losses and a halving of food waste at the retail and consumers levels; while the EU Commission has recently set the target, by 2030, of reducing by 10% food losses occurred at the stage of processing and manufacturing and by 30% food waste occurred at the stage of retail and consumption. Food losses and waste should primarily be considered an expression of inefficiency of agricultural production processes determining several environmental, social and economic impacts. The quantification of food losses and waste is still an unsolved problem so much so that, in EU; currently available data are only related to the period 2020–2021 and, in many cases, are based on estimates and are not uniform in individual Member States. This makes reliable predictions of results achievable by the European Union particularly difficult. The aim of this paper is to analyze whether the plan of losses and waste reduction established by the EU Commission is able to both ensure the achievement of 2030 Agenda target 12.3 and to make a contribution to improving the sustainability of agri-food systems. In doing so, in addition to Eurostat data on losses and waste, the EU-Commission projections and the latest results of recent studies on environmental, social and economic impact of food losses and waste in EU were used, including indicators on hidden costs of agrifood systems developed by FAO. What observed shows that the EU-Commission reduction plan, if implemented, should result in a reduction of losses and waste inadequate for complying with the recommendation given by the target 12.3. Furthermore, the EU-Commission’s decision not to provide for losses reduction at the agricultural stage should significantly limit environmental benefits, given that much of the negative environmental impacts (GHG, land and water use, etc.) are ascribable to this stage as are, according to FAO estimates, hidden environmental costs. Besides limiting environmental benefits, the EU-Commission reduction plan, focusing only on the food losses and waste reduction in the final stage of supply food chain, could lead to negative social and economic impacts caused by a decline in the demand, which will reduce supply, jobs losses and GDP reduction. The conclusion on this, is that the reduction of food losses and waste is an issue that cannot be addressed separated but needs to be included in a wider program of integrated and complementary measures as a whole clearly aimed at realizing forms of circular economy.

Renewable Energy Investments in Poland: Goals, Socio-Economic Benefits, and Development Directions

Renewable energy sources (RES) will play a key role in the transition to clean energy. Financial and socio-economic benefits determine the investment management in these energy sources. This article aims to indicate current energy policy goals, present socio-economic benefits resulting from renewable energy investments, and review further development directions in Poland. The research was carried out using desk research, case studies, and literature review methods to provide a broader economic context for RES investments. The scope of the research included both the Polish and the European Union contexts. The authors examined the Polish objectives of investment in renewable energy contained in strategic, planning, and other legal documents compared to EU targets, reviewed possible investments in renewable energy, and indicated wind farms and photovoltaic investments as the most effective ones from the point of view of further development which aims to meet the EU’s goals by 2030. The authors also demonstrated a wide range of socio-economic benefits based on literature reviews, analysis of policy documents, and regulations regarding the energy sector, and examined a specific example of investment implementation and identified the ecosystem of beneficiaries and their benefits.

Sustainability implications of the EU's bioeconomy transition along global supply chains

The EU has set ambiguous targets for the development of a bioeconomy (BE) that not only ensures sufficient production of high-quality foods but also contributes to decarbonization, green jobs and reducing import dependency through biofuels and bio-based chemical products. However, the various and complex interrelations between the BE, the natural environment as well as wider economy and society risk that the EU's targets might indirectly compromise achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) globally. Here, we assess the impacts of the EU's BE on the achievement of a broad range of SDG indicators using the hybrid econometric input-output model that covers 64 countries plus a region rest of world with 36 industries and 28 agricultural production sectors each. We compare the impacts of the EU's BE across three different scenarios based on SSP2 combined with corresponding IEA and FAO scenarios describing different futures of population and GDP growth, climate policy and structural changes in the energy and agriculture sector. Our results show that, especially without further measures focusing on the circular use of biomass, the EU's BE is likely not contributing to a general improvement in SDG indicators. Instead, there are major trade-offs between various SDGs. Firstly, between the goals of climate change mitigation, on the one hand, and preservation of ecosystems through the protection of natural land, especially forests, and water bodies on the other. The second major trade-off is between the EU's goals of fostering the economic competitiveness and lowering the import dependency of fossil energy and food security especially in low income countries outside Europe.

Reduction of gas demand through changes in heating behaviour in households: Novel insights from modelling and empirical evidence

The geopolitical situation and the energy crisis caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine have led to proposals for immediate reduction in energy consumption within the European Union (EU). The REPowerEU Plan of the European Commission proposes behavioural changes as short-term measures to rapidly reduce the EU's dependence on Russian gas and oil. This paper investigates the energy saving potential resulting from changes in household heating behaviour. Through a comparison of modelling results with results of the analysis of empirical data collected in a survey of households in four EU Member States (Germany, the Netherlands, Greece, and Poland), the paper examines the adequacy of the short-term measures proposed by the EU and the instruments needed to leverage such measures and increase their potential impact. Although the reported changes in heating behaviour lead to a 2.0 % to 3.5 % reduction in residential gas demand in the countries studied, the study recognises that the EU targets for reducing the gas demand will not be met under current regulatory conditions, and considers the energy savings observed in this paper and in the literature as a short-term response to unexpected circumstances. The paper proposes a policy package to transform these responses into the long-term behavioural changes needed to achieve climate targets. Promoting uptake of household technical infrastructure, providing financial support and implementing information campaigns are suggested as effective approaches to achieving savings targets.

From Biogas to Biomethane: An In-Depth Review of Upgrading Technologies That Enhance Sustainability and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Renewable energies present an opportunity to enhance energy security, reduce dependence on imports, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas, viewed as a transitional fuel from coal to renewables, lacks reliable environmental sustainability and does not contribute to EU energy independence. Recently, biomethane has been gaining attention as an alternative to natural gas. Obtained from purified or “upgraded” biogas, it offers environmental and economic advantages. Several developed technologies, including absorption, adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic separation, are commercially available. However, those are energy- and resource-intensive. In this context, this review aims to examine the recent advancements in biogas upgrading, particularly in physical, chemical, and biological pathways. It focuses on CO2 removal and/or conversion to methane, offering an updated overview for future studies. The technologies are classified based on the separation method (by phase addition, by solid agent, by phase creation, and by biological process), and an analysis of each category is conducted. The discussion covers the economic and environmental characteristics, process complexity, and future research prospects in sustainable technologies. This review highlights the potential of biogas upgrading technologies in contributing to sustainable development, increasing energy security, and achieving greenhouse gas reduction goals that are aligned with EU targets.

Food shortage driven crop residue burning and health risk

Ending global hunger is one of the greatest challenges humanity faces. The second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 2), Zero Hunger, seeks to simultaneously address global environmental sustainability and food security challenges. However, ending hunger and food shortage would lead to the increase of agricultural activities and crop yields, which in turn might rise crop residue biomass burning, leading to adverse environmental and health consequences. This study estimated the health risk using modeled airborne benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a common indicator of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) released from crop residue biomass burning, and demonstrated the dependence of incremental lifetime lung cancer risk (ILCR) on the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU). Results showed that 10.4% of the global population are exposed to BaP concentration levels exceeding the EU target value (1 ng/m3) due to crop residue burning. The dependence of ILCR on PoU was attributed to increasing post-harvest crop residue biomass burning consequent to growing crop yield motivated by food shortage. Although global mean ILCR from crop residue burning BaP emission was positively correlated with the mean PoU at a correlation coefficient of r = 0.87 (p < 0.0001), positive and negative associations between PoU and ILCR were found among different less-developed countries. Eighty-nine less-developed countries were clustered into five groups, and the response of each group's ILCR to their respective PoU was assessed, which was interpreted by a human development index (HDI) that measured key dimensions of human development. Results also revealed that sustainable agriculture and implementation of air emission control measures play key roles in the association between hunger and ILCR.

EU-Bioenergies: Status and Future Prospects

For climate protection and a sustainable economy, the European Union is pursuing a policy of switching from fossil to renewable energies, which should lead to a reduction in greenhouse gases (GHG) and a reduction in dependence on energy imports. This report uses publicly available databases and analyses to examine the extent to which these goals are achieved or are achievable by means of bioenergy (fuel, heat, electricity). In addition, EU regulations and databases relevant to bioenergy are critically scrutinised. Today, bioenergy accounts for around 10% of Europe's energy supply, making up more than half (59%) of renewable energies. There is potential to further increase bioenergy, but the future contribution to energy supply and independence from imports is rather to be estimated as moderate. The evaluation of GHG suffers from the fact that the official databases do not meet the requirements for a scientific evaluation. In order to make a sustainable contribution to the EU targets, besides energy, all other options for the use of biomass, the use of biogenic CO2 through carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) and the combination of bioenergy and carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) should be integrated. To promote the implementation of such an integrated approach, the pricing of GHG should be combined with incentives for the upscaling of sustainable bioenergy, CCU and CCS.

Typology for Decision Support Systems in Integrated Pest Management and Its Implementation as a Web Application

Decision support systems (DSSs) enable the optimisation of pesticide application timing to increase pesticide efficacy and thus reduce pesticide use without compromising yield quality and quantity. Limited access to information about available DSSs for use in integrated pest management (IPM) is a major barrier to the uptake of DSSs for IPM across Europe. To overcome this barrier, a typology for DSSs for IPM in Europe was developed, introducing a systematic approach to describe the ever-growing number of DSSs for IPM. The developed IPM-DSS typology was implemented in the free web tool “IPM Adviser”, where currently 79 IPM DSSs are described with over 50 attributes describing their structural and performance characteristics. The information about IPM DSSs, which was previously scattered on different websites and difficult to compare, is now standardised and presented in a uniform way, so that it is possible to compare different IPM DSSs on the basis of all the attributes described. The presented IPM-DSS typology implemented in the web tool IPM Adviser facilitates the dissemination and uptake of DSSs for IPM and thus contributes to the achievement of the EU targets for the sustainable use of pesticides.

Novel concepts for the biocatalytic synthesis of second-generation biodiesel

Biodiesel is synthesized by the transesterification of triglycerides of oils with short-chain alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol. According to the Renewable Energy Directive guidelines (RED II 2018/2001/EU) the contribution of advanced biofuels, which do not include edible oils, towards the overall EU target, is at 1% in 2025 and at least 3.5% in 2030. Bioprocesses that valorize non-edible oils for the production of second-generation biodiesel could play a critical role in achieving this goal. Immobilized lipases, as well as other enzyme classes, such as cutinases and acyltransferases, are utilized as biocatalysts for this process. For the sustainability of the process, renewable materials can be used as immobilization matrices, or even enzymes anchored on the cells as whole-cell biocatalysts. Membrane reactors can also be employed to facilitate the enzymatic transesterification by conducting a continuous enzymatic reaction and simultaneously separate the products in a single operation. The advances on the aforementioned fast-pacing fields are presented in this work.

Efektywność wykorzystania zasobów naturalnych a stopień zapobiegania powstawaniu odpadów komunalnych w krajach Unii Europejskiej

Municipal waste prevention is the key objective of the European Union’s environmental policy, as it is believed to be the most effective way to improve the natural resource efficiency and to stop economic growth intensifying the generation municipal waste in member states. The main aim of this paper is to compare the efficiency of the use of natural resources in particular EU states and to investigate the strength and direction of the correlation between the former and the amount of the generated municipal waste. Moreover, the study assesses the strength of the relationship between the amount of the generated municipal waste and the economic growth of member states both at EU level and in groups of countries characterised by similar levels of resource efficiency. The study used statistical data from the Eurostat database for 2011–2020 and performed the cluster and correlation analyses. Five groups of countries, formed on the basis of their natural resources efficiency, were distinguished from the sample using the k-means method. The results showed that the higher the resource efficiency, the more municipal waste per capita is generated by a country, which is inconsistent with the assumptions of the EU policy. The correlation analysis found that the relationship between economic growth and the amount of the generated municipal waste exists (Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient for these two values has been positive since 2011 and has remained at a relatively high level). The strength of this correlation has not been weakened along the increase in the resource efficiency. The study additionally demonstrates that EU member states link the scale of the recycling activity to the amount of the generated municipal waste, which might pose to a serious threat to the EU target to minimise the amount of the generated municipal waste.

Development of an Innovative Hydrogen Production Solution for Use in the Field of Environmental Protection

The European Union has marked out various targets to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, one of which includes reducing CO2 emissions and the impact of climate change, through a transition to green energy and contributing to the EU targets on the production of an annual hydrogen capacity of 1 million tons by 2025 and 10 million tons by 2030. In this context, the paper analyses the water quality restrictions used for the electrolyser supply, facilitating the placement of a hydrogen installation near any source of water. Renewable energy sources will be used simultaneously to obtain hydrogen production efficiency. The suggested technology offers a decarbonized solution in the protected wetlands regions’ naval sector and as natural gas potentially used in the domestic and industrial sectors. Additionally, its potential to be repeatable, resilient, and sustainable makes the developed innovative hydrogen production solution eco-friendly.

The role of SRF in achieving the EU landfill targets in the Umbria Region, Italy

In December 2015, the European Commission published the circular economy package “Closing the loop - An European action plan for the Circular Economy” with four quantitative objectives: long-term recycling targets for municipal waste (55% in 2025, 60% in 2030 and 65% in 2035) and landfill target of 10% by 2030. In Umbria (Italy) 43% of waste are landfilled in 2020, so the region is far from the European target. Hence, it is significant to analyse different strategies to improve the waste management in the region. In particular, the main issue is how to reduce waste landfill in the most efficient way. The SRF and waste-to-energy approaches are the most interesting to study as a substitute for landfilling. In the communication “The role of waste-to-energy in the circular economy”, the European Commission clarifies the position covered by the different energy processes in the waste hierarchy and identifying the technologies with the highest potential in terms of efficient management of resources and environmental impact. Among the most efficient waste-to-energy technologies, the document mentions the gasification of recovered solid fuel (SRF) and co-incineration of the resulting synthesis gases in the combustion plant to replace fossil fuels in the production of electricity and heat and co-incineration in the cement production. The European Commission recognizes the important role of energy recovery in the transition to the circular economy, if this does not stop the improvement in recycling rates. In this paper, MSW management policy in Umbria (Italy) and possible solutions are discussed. The paper considers three scenarios in the management of MSW: i) direct combustion of residual waste in waste-to-energy plants; ii) combustion of SRF in waste-to-energy plants; iii) combustion of F-SRF in dedicated plants (cement plant). All three scenarios may be able to match the 10% landfill EU target.

Biodistricts as a tool to revitalize rural territories and communities: insights from the biodistrict Cilento

The necessity and urgency of the food systems transformation is no longer questionable, and the transformation pathways are inevitably reappearing as a subject of academic and public debate. In search of sustainable food production strategies as part of a broader transformation, organic food systems are called for as one of the solutions to achieve environmentally friendly and just food systems. In this context, the role of biodistricts has been recently emphasized at the EU level. The authors of the manuscript argue that biodistricts, aside from acting as a tool to help achieve the EU target of increasing the share of organically farmed land, are also capable of revitalizing rural territories and communities, which are currently threatened with rural exodus. Semi-structured interviews and the focus group with key actors of the biodistrict Cilento revealed a multitude of territory- and community related outcomes, which demonstrate that organic districts are capable of rendering rural territories to attractive multifunctional spaces with a tight-knit community.

Review existing strategies to improve circularity, sustainability and resilience of wind turbine blades – A comparison of research and industrial initiatives in Europe

To become the first climate-neutral continent by 2050, the EU is committing to ambitious targets such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990) and increasing the share of renewable energies in the EU energy mix to 45% by 2030. To meet these targets, the wind industry has to grow significantly while ensuring enough resources across the supply chains to scale the wind energy market and by striving to reduce its already shallow environmental impact. As material extraction and the production of wind turbines cause the most emissions, costs and risks on the scarcity of resources, the implementation of a circular economy could support the wind industry in meeting the EU target and improving its sustainability and resilience. However, the circular economy is a complex concept, and it can be challenging to translate it into precise action points, objectives and measurements. To clarify how a circular economy can support the wind industry, this paper takes the example of wind turbine blades, and it establishes a structured overview of research results and industrial initiatives aiming at implementing circularity for improving sustainability and resilience. The overview is used to investigate if objectives and clear actions are stated and how those differ between research and industry. By identifying gaps, future research and industry initiatives can be directed towards closing the bigger picture. The results show that many initiatives are ongoing, but only some circular strategies are comprehensively investigated, and clear objectives and measurements often remain to be included. The industry and research progressed the furthest on recycling. Future research and industry activities should further follow the path of closing the loop but need to also concentrate on reducing material use, extending the lifetime of blades and enabling a second lifecycle of blades.

The Role of Biomass in Decarbonisation Efforts: Spatially Enriched Energy System Optimisation Modelling

Forests are a potentially carbon-negative energy source and function as carbon sinks. However, both of these functions have become threatened significantly by spruce bark beetle infestation in Czechia. This paper assesses how this ecological issue may affect the future energy mix, and in the process, affect carbon emission reduction targets and the available share of renewable energy sources (RESs). We assess several forest development scenarios with three policy incentives: subsidising wood pellet production, striving for climate neutrality, and adhering to ecological constraints. We build a spatially enriched energy system model, TIMES-CZ, based on Eurostat’s NUTS3 regions. We find that the spruce bark beetle infestation may not exert a lasting influence on overall decarbonisation pathways, the energy mix, or system-wide costs in any forest scenario. The RESs share is affected only until 2030, and the effect is minimal, at &lt;1.5 percentage points. Nevertheless, Czechia’s RES contribution is far below the 45% 2030 EU target. Subsidising wood pellet production is a costly transition that does not contribute to meeting the target. Limiting forest biomass availability and adhering to ecological constraints increase the overall system costs and worsen the chances of meeting decarbonisation targets.