Tap Water Quality Research Articles

HYGIENIC AND HEALTH QUALITY OF HOT BEVERAGES DISTRIBUTED BY VENDING MACHINES

The food and beverage vending had in the last 40 years a great development in Italy. From the hygienic and health point of view, the quality of the products distributed by Vending is essentially related to three factors: the quality of raw materials, the quality of tap water and the good working order together with the good cleanliness and hygienic status of equipments. In this work we wanted to test these features. We evaluated microbiological and fungal quality of raw materials (powders), of distributed hot beverages and the used equipments. Despite contamination levels shown by the results of this study, the temperature of the boiler is sufficient to make a significant reduction of bacterial and fungal loads. To obtain satisfactory results on the quality of delivered hot beverages is necessary to apply correct maintenance and cleaning/sanitation procedures of equipments, as well as an appropriate selection of suppliers.

Hexavalent Chromium Through Lactational Exposure Delayed Follicular Development in Pre-Pubertal F1 Offspring: Mechanistic Insights into Cell Cycle Regulation of Granulosa Cells.

The United States is one of the world’s leading producers of chromium compounds. In California, 30% of drinking water sources are contaminated with significant levels of CrVI. More than two million tons of CrVI processing wastes contaminate 150 sites in Northern New Jersey alone, as it is the chromate capital of the world. According to the National Tap Water quality data base and Environmental Working Group (EWG) report (2008), 1.7 million people from 42 communities living in the New Jersey area drink chromium contaminated water. Moreover, in California, ~74 million people in nearly 7,000 communities drink tap water polluted with hexavalent and other forms of Cr (3), and these people are predisposed to various health problems, including increased menstrual bleeding, ovulatory dysfunctions and infertility. Recently we have reported that lactational exposure to CrVI induced a delay/arrest in follicular development at the secondary follicular stage, delayed puberty, prolonged inter-estrous intervals, and increased FSH, decreased estradiol. CrVI also down-regulated steroidogenic/and steroid signaling machineries such as FSHR, LHR, StAR, SF1, ERα, ERβ, 17bHSD-1, and -2. In order to investigate the underlying mechanism the following studies were undertaken: In Vivo studies: Pregnant rats were divided into the following groups and given the following treatments from postpartum day 1-21: (i) Control (n=5); (iia-d) CrVI (potassium dichromate, 5, 25, 50 and 100 ppm); and (iii) CrVI plus Vitamin C supplementation (CrVI through drinking water with vitamin C supplementation, 20 mg/kg b.wt; through gavage). During this period the F1 female offspring (4 pups/mother) received CrVI and/or vitamin C through the mother's milk from postnatal days (PND) 1-21. At the end of the treatment, F1 offspring were euthanized, ovaries collected, and follicle numbers were counted. Results: CrVI decreased primordial, primary, secondary and antral follicle numbers in F1 rats in a dose-dependent manner. In vitro studies: Primary cultures of rat granulosa cells (GC) from normal PND 21 F1 female rats, and spontaneously-immortalized rat granulosa cells (SIGC) were treated with 10 µM potassium dichromate (CrVI) for 12 and 24 h, with or without vitamin C pre-treatment for 24 h. The effects of CrVI on cell proliferation, cell cycle, and expression and regulation of cell cycle regulatory proteins were investigated in GC and SIGC. Our data indicated that CrVI: (i) decreased cell proliferation, (ii) arrested cell cycle at the G1-S, and G2-M phase check-points, (iii) down regulated G1-S phase-specific cyclins D2 and D3, and cyclin E; and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)-4, -6, and -2; (iv) down regulated G2-S phase-specific cyclins B1, A; and CDK-1; (v) CrVI up regulated CDK-inhibitors p15, p16, and p27 in GC and SIGC; (vi) CrVI also decreased cyclin D2-associated transcriptional factors c-myc, c-fos and c-jun; (vii) down regulated P13K/Akt. (viii) Vitamin C pre-treatment mitigated CrVI effects on the deregulation of cell cycle, decrease in cell proliferation, expression/regulation of cyclins, CDKs and CDKIs, and associated mitogenic pathways. Our study, for the first time provides a clear mechanistic insight into the effect of CrVI on granulosa cells which could be mitigated by vitamin C. (poster)

Parents’ Perceptions of Water Safety and Quality

Every day parents make choices about the source of water their families consume. There are many contributing factors which could affect decisions about water consumption including taste, smell, color, safety, cost, and convenience. However, few studies have investigated what parents with young children think about water quality and safety in the US and how this affects the choices they are making. This study aimed to describe the perceptions of parents with regard to water quality and safety and to compare bottled water and tap water use, as well as to examine motivation for water choices. We conducted an online questionnaire to survey parents living in Pennsylvania about water quality and safety, and preference for bottled versus tap water. Parents were recruited through child care centers, and 143 surveys were returned. The survey results showed high overall scores for perception of tap water quality and safety, and a preference for tap water over bottled water. We found that parents were concerned for the environmental impact that buying bottled water may have but were also concerned about potential contamination of tap water by natural gas drilling processes and nuclear power plants. These findings regarding parental concerns are critical to inform pediatric health care providers, water sellers, and suppliers in order that they may provide parents with the necessary information to make educated choices for their families.

Tap or Bottled Water: Drinking Preferences Among Urban Minority Children and Adolescents

The last decade has seen an increasing trend in consumer preference of bottled water over tap water. Little is known what type of water children and adolescents prefer for drinking and what their parents think of their community tap water. The study objective was to assess drinking water preferences, perceptions of the qualities of tap water and bottled water, and fluoride knowledge in an urban pediatric population. We conducted an anonymous survey of a convenience sample of caretakers of children and adolescents at an urban clinic regarding their preferences for tap or bottled water, their perceptions of the quality of tap and bottled water and their knowledge of fluoride. Of the 208 participants (79% African American, 9% Latino), 59% drank tap water, 80% bottled water. Only 17% drank tap water exclusively, 38% drank bottled water exclusively, 42% drank both. We found no significant differences in water preferences across age groups, from infancy to adulthood, or among ethnic groups. Ratings for taste, clarity, purity and safety were significantly higher for bottled water than tap water (P<0.001). Only 24% were aware of fluoride in drinking water. We conclude bottled water was preferred over tap water in an urban minority pediatric population. Perceptions of the qualities of water seemed to drive drinking preferences. Public health strategies are needed to increase public awareness of the impact of bottled water consumption on oral health, household budgets and the environment.

Assessment of drinking water quality using ICP-MS and microbiological methods in the Bholakpur area, Hyderabad, India

A total of 16 people died and over 500 people were hospitalized due to diarrhoeal illness in the Bholakpur area of Hyderabad, India on 6th May 2009. A study was conducted with immediate effect to evaluate the quality of municipal tap water of the Bholakpur locality. The study consists of the determination of physico-chemical properties, trace metals, heavy metals, rare earth elements and microbiological quality of drinking water. The data showed the variation of the investigated parameters in samples as follows: pH 7.14 to 8.72, EC 455 to 769 μS/cm, TDS 303.51 to 515.23 ppm and DO 1.01 to 6.83 mg/L which are within WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. The water samples were analyzed for 27 elements (Li, Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Ba and Pb) using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of Fe (0.12 to 1.13 mg/L), Pb (0.01 to 0.07 mg/L), Cu (0.01 to 0.19 mg/L), Ni (0.01 to 0.15 mg/L), Al (0.16 to 0.49 mg/L), and Na (38.36 to 68.69 mg/L) were obtained, which exceed the permissible limits of the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water quality guidelines. The remaining elements were within the permissible limits. The microbiological quality of water was tested using standard plate count, membrane filtration technique, thermotolerant coliform (TTC), and most probable number (MPN) methods. The total heterotrophic bacteria ranged from 1.0 × 10(5) to 18 × 10(7 )cfu/ml. Total viable bacteria in all the water samples were found to be too numerable to count and total number of coliform bacteria in all water samples were found to be of order of 1,100 to >2,400 MPN index/100 ml. TTC tested positive for coliform bacteria at 44.2°C. All the water samples of the study area exceeded the permissible counts of WHO and that (zero and minimal counts) of the control site (National Geophysical Research Institute) water samples. Excessively high colony numbers indicate that the water is highly contaminated with microorganisms and is hazardous for drinking purposes. Bacteriological pollution of drinking water supplies caused diarrhoeal illness in Bholakpur, which is due to the infiltration of contaminated water (sewage) through cross connection, leakage points, and back siphoning.

Spontaneous formation of γ-hydroxybutyric acid from γ-butyrolactone in tap water solutions

The spontaneous conversion of γ-butyrolactone (GBL) to γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in seven different Swedish tap waters was investigated. The waters used in the study were selected to represent the diversity among Swedish tap waters as well as possible, which was enabled by principal component analysis (PCA) of a number of water quality parameters. GBL solutions (5, 25 and 50% v/v) were prepared in each of the tap waters and in deionized water and the formation of GHB was followed over time. The GHB quantifications were made using a CZE method, employing a carrier electrolyte consisting of 25mM benzoic acid, 54mM tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris) and 1.7mM tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB), which was developed as a part of the current study. Data evaluation showed that the formation of GHB was largely dependent on the type of tap water. For example, there was a negative correlation between the kinetics of the GHB formation and the alkalinity of the tap waters (r(2)=0.990). This could be explained by a faster decrease in pH in the waters with low buffering capacity (i.e. low alkalinity), which catalysed the hydrolysis of GBL. Equilibrium was reached after 40-250 days depending on the initial GBL concentration and the type of tap water. The level of the equilibrium appeared to be dependent on the initial GBL concentration and ranged from 26 to 37%. Gained knowledge on the levels of the GHB/GBL equilibrium and the kinetics of the formation of GHB in tap water solutions of GBL, including the influence of the tap water quality, may be useful information for casework with the GHB/GBL problem in focus.

Residents' Perceptions of Tap Water and Decisions to Purchase Bottled Water: A Survey Analysis from the Appalachian, Big Sandy Coal Mining Region of West Virginia

In this exploratory effort, we examine the possible externalities associated with coal mine production and its ensuing effects on drinking water. Past experiences in the coal fields suggest that this has significant economic impacts on household budgets, with many residents choosing to buy bottled water rather than rely on their local tap water for consumption and household usage. Through an analysis of survey data, this study explores the relationship between resident perceptions of watershed pollution associated with coal mining, its perceived effects on drinking water quality, and decisions to purchase “store-bought” water (bottled water). While findings reveal an indirect association between perceived pollution impacts, perceived drinking water quality, and resident decisions to purchase bottled water, the most robust direct predictors of purchase are perceived tap water quality, the saliency of drinking water concerns, and trust/distrust in the local water treatment facility.

수질안정화 약품 주입에 따른 상수도관 내부 부식제어 특성 연구

최근 고품질의 수돗물에 대한 소비자의 요구가 상승함에 따라 상수도 배급수관의 내부 부식에 의한 수질악화 및 부식제어 연구에 대한 관심이 높아지고 있다. 이에 따라 노후 관 교체 사업을 대신하여 수질 관리를 위한 부식 제어 수단을 강구하지 않고서는 근본적인 문제 해결이 이루어질 수 없는 실정이다. 본 연구에서는 수질안정화 약품 주입에 의한 상수도관 내부 부식제어 효율을 평가하기 위해 Pilot Plant 실험을 실시하였으며, 부식성제어 효율은 물의 부식성을 나타내는 LSI(Langelier Saturation Index)값에 의해 평가되었다. 실험결과, Pilot Plant에 의해 제조된 반응수는 수질안정화 약품인 액상소석회(<TEX>$Ca(OH)_2$</TEX>, liquid lime)의 주입으로 부식성이 개선되어 철 용출이 억제되는 효과가 확인되었다. 강관과 동관을 절단하여 제작한 시편의 부식도 측정을 통해 각각 35.4, 44.5%의 부식제어 효과가 있음을 확인하였고 수질안정화 약품이 주입된 Sample관이 더 두터운 부식 생성물 층을 갖고 있는 것으로 밝혀졌으며, 결과적으로 수질안정화 약품을 투입한 배관이 부식 방지 측면에서 안정한 수질을 갖고 있음을 알 수 있었다. Recently, demands for generating high quality tap waters are increasing with high concern of water pollution and corrosion of water pipelines. For the reasons, developing water quality stabilization technique in water purification system is sought rather than replacing to a new pipelines. In this study, high-purity liquid lime(<TEX>$Ca(OH)_2$</TEX>) was introduced for a water quality stabilization technique in water purification process and simulated water distribution system of pilot-scale size was applied to evaluate anti-corrosion control effect. The effect of anti-corrosion control was calculated in terms of LSI(Langelier Saturation Index) In conclusion, the result of pilot plant showed improvement of corrosiveness by liquid lime(<TEX>$Ca(OH)_2$</TEX>) with reduction of released iron(Fe). Application of anti-corrosion control technique to the mild steel coupon and the copper coupon were effective by indicating 35.4, 44.5% of improvements. Besides, sample pipes which were treated with liquid lime had formated more thicker layer of corrosion product inside of pipes. As a result, the process of injecting water stabilizer can greatly contribute to the high quality of tap water.

Criticisms of chlorination: social determinants of drinking water beliefs and practices among the Tz'utujil Maya

To explore social determinants of drinking water beliefs and practices among the Tz'utujil Maya of Santiago Atitlán, Guatemala, through analysis of demographics, socioeconomic status, memory of historical events, sensory experience, and water attitudes. Parallel mixed (qualitative and quantitative) methods, including participant observation, in-depth interviews based on a purposive sample, and 201 semi-structured interviews based on a regional quota sample, were used to collect data from March 2007 to August 2008. Data analysis included the use of grounded theory methodology and Pearson's chi-square test for independence. Qualitative results based on grounded theory highlighted how memory of the Guatemalan Civil War and Hurricane Stan, attitudes about Lake Atitlán water, and the taste and smell of chlorine influenced Tz'utujil Maya drinking water beliefs. Quantitative survey results revealed that differences in ethnicity, literacy, years of schooling, distrust of the water supply during the Civil War and Hurricane Stan, and current beliefs about Lake Atitlán and tap water quality were associated with significantly different water self-treatment practices. In accordance with social determinants of health paradigms, demographic, socioeconomic, social, cultural, political, and historical factors continue to be significant determinants of water-related health. Public health water interventions must address inequalities related to these underlying factors in order to achieve maximum effectiveness.

What are Households Willing to Pay for Better Tap Water Quality? A Cross-Country Valuation Study

We estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for better quality of tap water on a unique cross-section sample from 10 OECD countries. On the pooled sample, households are willing to pay 7.5% of the median annual water bill to improve the tap water quality. The highest relative WTP for better tap water quality was found in the countries with the highest percentage of respondents being unsatisfied with tap water quality because of health concerns. The expected WTP increased with income, education, environmental concern, and health and taste concerns with the tap water.

Differences in water consumption choices in Canada: the role of socio-demographics, experiences, and perceptions of health risks

In 2000 and 2001 Canadians were shocked by water contamination events that took place in two provinces. In 2004 we undertook an internet-based survey across Canada that asked respondents to identify in percentage terms their total drinking water consumption according to one of three sources: tap water, bottled water, and home-filtered water (either some type of container or an in-tap filter device). In this paper we investigate the factors that influence these choices and whether choosing to either filter or purchase water is linked to perceptions of health concerns with respect to tap water. A series of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests suggest that the presence of children in a household and self-reported concern that tap water causes health problems lead to significantly greater consumption of bottled water or filtered water and significantly less tap water consumption. In order to examine these choices in a multivariate framework, we estimate a multinomial logit model. Factors yielding higher probabilities of a respondent being primarily a bottled water drinker (relative to the choice of tap water) include: higher income, unpleasant taste experiences with tap water, non-French-speaking, and being a male with children in one's household. Similar factors yield higher probabilities of a respondent being primarily a filtered tap water drinker. An important finding is that two key variables linking a person's health perceptions regarding tap water quality are significant factors leading to the choice of either filtered tap water or bottled water over tap water. They are: a variable showing the degree of health concerns a respondent has with respect to tap water and a second variable indicating whether the respondent believes bottled water is safer than tap water.

Microbiological quality of drinking water from dispensers in Italy

BackgroundWater coolers are popular in office buildings and commercial stores and the quality of this source of drinking water has the potential to cause waterborne outbreaks, especially in sensitive and immunocompromised subjects. The aim of this study was to determine the quality of water plumbed in coolers from commercial stores in comparison with tap water in Italy.MethodsFor each sample, microbial parameters and chemical indicators of contamination were evaluated and information about the date of installation, time since last ordinary and extraordinary maintenance of water coolers was collected.ResultsIn all samples the chemical parameters (nitrite, ammonium, free active chlorine residual) did not exceed the reference values of the drinking water regulation; the pH value in 86.8% samples of the carbonated waters was lower than the reference limit. The microbiological results indicated that the bacteria count at 22°C and 37°C was higher than the required values in 71% and 81% for the non-carbonated water and in 86% and 88% for the carbonated one, respectively. Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli were not detected in any of the water samples. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found in only one sample of the tap water and in 28.9% and 23.7% of the non-carbonated and carbonated water samples, respectively. No statistically significant differences in bacterial counts at 22°C and 37°C have been found between the non-carbonated and carbonated water from the sampled coolers in relation with the time since the last filter was substituted. The bacteriological quality of tap water was superior to that of non-carbonated and carbonated water from coolers.ConclusionThe results emphasize the importance of adopting appropriate routinely monitoring system in order to prevent or to diminish the chances of contamination of this water source.

DISTRIBUTION WATER MATERIALS AND TAP WATER QUALITY

In a study regarding metals concentrations in tap water, more than 250 samples were collected and analyzed using ICP-EOS techniques on a Perkin Elmer Optima 5300 DV spectrometer. Even if the quality of drinking waters provided by one important producer from Romania were situated in the limits imposed by the Romanian Legislation, the data reflected important influences of the material used in the internal distribution system within the customer buildings on the tap waters quality. In 85% of the tap water collected from copper cold water pipes high concentrations of copper were recorded, much more than 100 μg/L, which is the maximum admissible value in the Drinking Water Romanian Law. Another problem observed was related to Fe content, possible leached by the cast iron or unprotected steel pipes. In addition, branch pipe or Pb old pipe included in the internal distribution system has a negative influence on the tap water quality.

Chemical Quality of Tap Water versus Bottled Water: Evaluation of Some Heavy Metals and Elements Content of Drinking Water in Dakhlia Governorate - Egypt

Water is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory safe supply must be made available to consumers. Many different chemicals may occur in drinking water. The problems associated with chemical constituents of drinking water arise primarily from their ability to cause significant human health risks after prolonged periods of exposure; of particular concern are contaminants that have cumulative toxic properties, such as heavy metals. This study was done to clarify concerns about chemical quality and safety of drinking tap water in Dakhlia governorate. For comparison, selected samples from three common commercial bottled water were analyzed. Atomic absorption Spectrometry technique was used to measure lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, zinc, selenium, calcium, magnesium and sodium in 65 samples of tap water and nine samples of bottled water. The mean concentrations of the metals in drinking water obtained in this study were within the acceptable levels of the World Health Organization (WHO,2004) guidelines and lower than maximum contaminated levels (MCL) established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA,2004). Tap water showed slightly higher levels of lead, arsenic, cadmium, zinc, and selenium.

Microbiological Evaluation of the Quality of Tap Water Distributed at Khartoum State

Microbiological Evaluation of the Quality of Tap Water Distributed at Khartoum State

Comparative assessment of physico-chemical quality of bottled and tap water in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Samples of various brands of bottled water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania were analyzed for physicochemical water quality parameters. For comparison purposes, tap water was similarly examined. The results showed great variations in physico-chemical quality of bottled water, with some samples exceeding the Tanzania Drinking Water Quality Standards for nitrate, pH and lead. Significant discrepancies were observed between the labelled and measured values for all the investigated parameters except for pH. Mean concentration values of TDS and nitrate in tap water were found to be significantly lower than those of bottled water. On the whole, this study suggests that bottled water offers little advantage over tap water except in terms of turbidity and colour.

Surveying the mutagenicity of tap water to elicit the effects of purification processes on Japanese tap water

The mutagenicity levels of tap water in Japan were surveyed using the Ames test. Tap water samples (179) were collected at 17 sampling sites located from the northern tip (Hokkaido) to the southern tip (Kagoshima Prefecture). The mutagenicity values ranged from under the detection limit to 3600 net rev. L −1. The average mutagenicity was 1100 net rev. L −1 and the levels were significantly higher in the wintertime than in the summertime. The average mutagenicity of each site ranged from under the detection limit to 2000 net rev. L −1. There was no significant correlation of the mutagenicity with TOC, A 260 or THMs. The highest positive ratios of the Ames test and the umu test were 92% under the condition TA100 − S9 and 9% under the condition NM2009 − S9, respectively, which indicated that the Ames test has higher sensitivity for the test of tap water than the umu test. This survey incorporated the 1992–1993 survey. The comparison of these survey-results in a further study will reveal the improvement of Japanese tap water quality from the perspective of mutagenicity.

Tap water quality and performance of point‐of‐use treatment devices in Cairo, Egypt

AbstractTap water quality was examined in six sampling events over a 2‐year period in a residential community of Greater Cairo, Egypt. The sampling sites chosen had a granular activated carbon (GAC), reverse osmosis (RO) or distillation point‐of‐use (POU) treatment device so that the performance of these units for standard water quality parameters could be evaluated. Tap water satisfied Egyptian and international drinking water standards and guidelines for the majority of samples analysed. Exceptions were the violation of international limits for lead in 10 samples, and total trihalomethane (TTHM) levels that occasionally exceeded drinking water limits. Only the RO and distillation units achieved removal of total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity and hardness. However, GAC units are considerably less costly in the local market. All three POU units exhibited potential reduction of chemical contaminants such as trihalomethanes (THMs), improved taste via chlorine removal and improvement in clarity. Realization of these benefits, however, is conditioned upon proper operation and maintenance of the device.

The True Cost of Bottled Water

Our addiction to bottled water is costing us dearly ? both economically and environmentally. Millions worldwide do not have the luxury of quality tap water, but many of us do, so why do we continue to put ourselves out of pocket and our environment at risk?

Quality comparison of tap water vs. bottled water in the industrial city of Yanbu (Saudi Arabia)

This study was conducted to compare the quality of bottled water with potabilized desalinated tap water. Fourteen brands of local and imported bottled water samples were collected from the local market and analyzed for physicochemical parameters in the Royal Commission Environmental Laboratory. Results were compared with 5-year continuous monitoring data of tap water from different locations in Madinat Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah (MYAS) including storage tanks of desalination plant. Results show that there was no significant difference in the quality of tap water and bottled water. Bacteriological test was never found positive in the 5-year data in tap water. Similarly, physicochemical analysis shows the persistent quality of tap water. Based on hardness analysis, bottled and tap water are categorized as soft water. Trihalomethanes (THMs) study also indicates that traces of disinfection by products (DBPs) are present in both tap and bottled water and are much less than the World Health Organization and Environmental Protection Agency maximum permissible limits. It is also important to note that the tap water distribution network in MAYS is a high-pressure recirculation network and there is no chance to grow bacteria in stagnant water in pipe lines or houses. Recently, the Royal Commission has replaced the whole drinking water network, which was made of asbestos-cemented pipes with glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) pipes, to avoid any asbestos contaminations. Based on these results, it is concluded that drinking water distributed in the city is of very good and persistent quality, comparable with bottled water. Continuous monitoring also guarantees the safe drinking water to the community. Hence, it is the responsibility of the Royal Commission to encourage the peoples in the city to drink tap water as it is as good as bottled water even better than some of the brands and is monitored regularly. It is also much cheaper compared to bottled water and is available round the clock. Preference for tap water over bottled water will also reduce the production of bottled water that has flooded the market, the enormous strain on the environment, and the pollution due to used empty plastic bottles in the landfill area and will help to keep the city clean.