Tanzanian Farmers Research Articles

Technical Efficiency of Smallholder Farmers in Tanzania: A Stochastic Frontier Approach

Aims: This study focused on determining the level of technical efficiency (TE) and its corresponding common factors across all crops grown by Tanzanian smallholder farmers. The motive of this study came from production theory and production efficiency and the research was strongly attracted by the ongoing subsistence nature of the agriculture sector in the country that doesn’t fully meet the desired productivity
 Methology: The study employed the cross-sectional National Sample Census of Agriculture 2019/2020 dataset while focusing on smallholder farmers operating in the long-rainy season by employing a single-step stochastic frontier model with an assumption of a Cobb-Douglas production function.
 Results: The results of production on frontier show that land size (Ha), seeds (Kg), and fertilizers (Kg) are the main requirement for smallholder farmers to produce their maximum output. Based on the efficiency equation, improved seeds, inorganic fertilizers, and access to extension services decrease farmers' technical inefficiency while household age and membership in a cooperative organization increase farmers' technical inefficiency. Further, the average level of technical efficiency among smallholder farmers in Tanzania is 56.7% which allows farmers to increase their output level up to 43.2% with the same level of inputs.
 Conclusion: As per the results, improved seeds and inorganic fertilizers are essential, however farmers organizations act as stumbling blocks. Thus, in this regard, Tanzanian farmers still have a room to improve and unlock their full potential, and so it is imperative for the government to take immediate measures to improve their technical efficiency such as introduction of more irrigation schemes, improved seed subsidies among others and farmers organizations should also be enhanced and streamlined to support farmers efficiency.

Farmers' preferences for East African highland cooking banana 'Matooke' hybrids and local cultivars

BackgroundAn understanding of farmers' preferences of new banana cultivars and their characteristics is critical for developing and selecting cultivars that meet consumer needs. Therefore, phenotypic selection in a genetically variable population remains an important aspect of plant breeding.MethodsThe participatory varietal selection approach for preference ranking was used on 31 'Matooke' secondary and primary triploid hybrids and local banana cultivars evaluated between 2016 and 2019 in Uganda and Tanzania to investigate how farmers' preference attributes could help breeders identify superior cultivars. The quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The qualitative data from farmers' focus group discussions (FGDs) were described using content analysis. The Mann–Whitney U test and Wilcoxon's signed-rank test were used to confirm the difference in farmers' preferences between groups.ResultsFarmers' approaches for defining characteristics were multivariate, and their preferences varied by site and country. Large fruit, a large bunch, market acceptability of the banana bunch, a sturdy stem, and an attractive appearance of the banana plant were the characteristics most preferred by farmers in Tanzania and Uganda. Tanzanian farmers preferred large bunches over other characteristics like bunch marketability and robust stem. Large fruit, drought tolerance, a strong stem, and phenotypic similarity to local cultivars were prioritized by Ugandan farmers. Both men and women farmers were more concerned with production-related characteristics, but the former valued marketing-related characteristics more, while the latter preferred use-related characteristics. Their preferences did not differ statistically, but the relative importance assigned by each group to the selected attributes was different.ConclusionFarmers' varietal preferences are frequently based on some assumed requirements, resulting in cultivar rejection or non-adoption. Therefore, determining the value attributed to each characteristic by various farmer groups is crucial in developing 'Matooke' banana cultivars with desired attributes that will boost the rate of adoption on-farms. Breeding initiatives that establish a system of integrated approaches and rely on thorough diagnosis of both production and consumption characteristics will best serve farmers' diverse preferences. To accomplish this, planning for varietal improvement initiatives at various levels—including internationally, regionally, nationally, and locally—would require a strong participatory structure that is gender inclusive.

Farmers’ heterogeneous preferences for traits of improved varieties: Informing demand-oriented crop breeding in Tanzania

Summary Understanding farmers’ preferences and willingness to pay for different traits is critical for demand-driven varietal development and designing targeted strategies that stimulate adoption of varieties by farmers. This study uses choice experiment data from a random sample of 1299 Tanzanian farmers to analyze their preferences for traits of groundnut varieties, investigate trade-offs involved in valuation of attributes, and explore heterogeneity in preferences. Results reveal that farmers have strong preferences for groundnut varieties that are high yielding, tolerant to environmental stresses, early-maturing, red-colored, and fetching high sale prices in grain markets. Farmers are willing to pay the highest premium for high-yielding attributes, closely followed by the tolerance trait. Further, a latent class analysis identifies four distinct classes of farmers, confirming considerable heterogeneity in farmers’ preferences for various groundnut traits. A specific distinction is notable between preferences of consumption-oriented and market-oriented farmer classes. Our results have important implications for demand-driven variety development and targeted dissemination of improved varieties.

Tanzanian Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Improved Maize Technology: Analyzing Influencing Factors Using SEM and fsQCA Methods

The China–Tanzania Village-based Learning Center for Poverty Reduction project aims to demonstrate China’s experience in poverty reduction through developing smallholder agriculture at the village level, and through the promotion of improved technologies with the purpose of increasing agricultural productivity and improving village-level agricultural production. However, to promote technology application effectively, a better understanding of farmers’ behavioral intention toward improved maize technology is needed. This study uses microdata from 282 Tanzanian maize farmers. Compared with previous research, the innovation of our study is that the methods of structural equation model (SEM) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) are applied to study the influencing factors of farmers’ intention to adopt improved maize technology and the combination paths that affect farmers’ intention. The analysis results show that farmers’ behavior perceptions and compatibility perceptions positively impact their intention to choose agricultural technology. Three modes can trigger farmers’ intention to adopt technology: “behavior perception, compatibility perception, non-self-efficacy, facilitation conditions,” “behavior perception, social impact, non-self-efficacy, facilitation conditions,” and “compatibility perception, social impact, self-efficacy, facilitation conditions.” To increase maize yield and promote the extension of improved agricultural technology through the China–Tanzania Village-based Learning Center for Poverty Reduction project, it is necessary to choose an effective combination path to influence farmers’ intention to adopt the proposed changes. If farmers’ intention to adopt improved maize technology can be increased to a greater extent, it can accelerate the improvement of agricultural technology in Tanzania, thereby increasing agricultural productivity, improving agricultural production at the village level, and reducing poverty.

Assessment of Nitrogen Management on Sunflower Yield and Its Economic Response in Smallholder Farms in a Semi-Arid Region

Although sunflower production in Tanzania is increasing, smallholder farmers still face a number of constraints that result in poor yields. Lack or inadequate nutrient supply is one of the main factors limiting crop productivity in Tanzania. However, mineral fertilizer is not always easily available and not economically affordable by smallholder farmers. Therefore, the use of animal manure could be a feasible and financially viable alternative, especially in the Dodoma region, where there is abundant livestock production. The aim is to analyze the effects of different animal manure rates on sunflower yield and the economic response of smallholder farms from Dodoma region. The dataset used in this study was obtained from a 2-year in loco survey. Sunflower yields under different animal manure rates were obtained using a process-based biophysical model, and results linked to an economic assessment. Results considering the 2015 and 2045 period showed a positive effect of animal manure application in sunflower yield (866.8 kg ha−1) under manure rate limiting 5000 kg ha−1. The high rates of animal manure showed a decrease on yield providing evidence that water stress becomes the main limit factor for sunflower growth. Taking the economic assessment into account, an animal manure rate of 3000–5000 kg ha−1 is the most appropriate fertilization management under the environmental and social conditions of Dodoma region, providing a profitable financial return to the farmers (283–416 USD ha−1). Therefore, sunflower is an attractive cash crop for Tanzanian farmers when the soil fertilization is properly managed.

The Entrepreneurship Potential of Rural Areas: Soap Production as a Side Business for Tanzanian Rice Farmers

Purpose: This study examines soap production’s entrepreneurship potential and profitability as a supplementary business for rural rice farmers in Tanzania to promote their economic independence.
 Design/ Methodology/ Approach: We randomly sampled and interviewed about ten small-scale soap manufacturers in urban Tanzania gathered from 2019-2021 to develop a soap production business strategy for rural farmers at a similar scale. Considering the Voronoi theory, we calculated the distance from the rural areas to urban centres to determine the transportation costs, which particularly burden rural farmers. Soap production costs and profitability were determined based on transportation costs and raw material prices.
 Findings: Rural farmers would incur high transportation costs, given the high average distance to the nearest urban centre (sometimes > 100 km). Nevertheless, producing their rice bran oil, valuable raw material for soap production, would give them a competitive advantage over urban producers.
 Research Limitation: The study’s proposed strategy can be applied to similar contexts to reduce the urban-rural entrepreneurship divide.
 Practical Implication: Soaps made using rice bran oil help farmers reuse agricultural waste. Their active ingredients also increase their marketability as high-end cosmetic products, providing farmers with additional income.
 Social Implication: Commercializing agricultural residues such as rice bran increases farmers’ revenues and reduces CO2 emissions by preventing the residues’ incineration; this creates a virtuous cycle in society.
 Originality/ Value: This study presents a more realistic business strategy for rural Tanzanian farmers, as, unlike previous studies, it considers not only direct costs but also transportation costs.

Communication channels for exchanging agricultural information among Tanzanian farmers: A meta-analysis

This study investigates how communication channels to exchange agricultural information were chosen. Specifically, it identifies the communication channels used by farmers in Tanzania and determines the factors influencing the choice of communication channels for exchanging agricultural information. The study employs a meta-analysis review methodology in identifying, evaluating and interpreting studies relevant to the topic of interest. The results indicate that radio, mobile phones, television, fellow farmers, agricultural extension agents and newspapers were the commonly used communication channels for transferring agricultural information. Moreover, the channels’ influence, availability, affordability, communication network coverage, and the resources and facilities needed to use a particular communication channel were found to influence the choice of channels. It is concluded that understanding the audience, the characteristics surrounding messages and choosing appropriate communication channels are important for enhancing access to agricultural information. It is recommended that agricultural information providers should understand the factors surrounding communication channels before disseminating agricultural information.

An Evolving Agricultural Extension Model for Lasting Impact: How Willing Are Tanzanian Farmers to Pay for Extension Services?

Community-based extension services (CES) are vital for improving farmers’ livelihoods, but most of them face a challenge of sustainability after phasing out of the externally funded initiatives that they are part of. This study estimated farmer’s willingness to pay (WTP) for four types of agricultural extension services (AES) in the cereals’ value chains provided as a part of two United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded Feed the Future initiatives in Tanzania. Data were collected from 595 smallholder cereal farmers using a primary survey in four districts of the Southern Highlands. We implemented a double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation method. Average WTP figures ranged from 20,000 to 24,000 TZS (8–10 USD) depending on the type of AES. Several socioeconomic and agriculture-related variables influenced smallholders’ WTP for the extension services. This research explored the feasibility of a farmer-led model as a pathway to delink extension services from public and donor funding to achieve sustainable rural development. Farmers place a monetary value on extension services indicating that policymakers and practitioners should make further efforts to enhance a community’s ability to achieve self-reliance through investments in CES.

Avocado Production and Local Trade in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: A Case of an Emerging Trade Commodity from Horticulture

Avocado crop in Tanzania is sparingly investigated regardless of being an important fruit commodity. This study was undertaken to explore the yield and the value chain of this crop in the country. Data were collected mainly by face-to-face interviews with 275 avocado farmers, 231 avocado traders and 16 key informants. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square test and one-way analysis of variance were used for data analysis. The average crop yield ranged from 76 to 124 kg plant−1 between regions. The average price for the farmers’ produce ranged from US$ 0.30 to 0.45 kg−1 between regions. About 72% of the farmers were dissatisfied with avocado business whereas 79% of the traders were pleased with it. A number of challenges were found hindering the development of the avocado industry in Tanzania, which in turn affects the fruit yield and the value chain. Addressing these challenges at the national, regional, district and village levels is important for improving the livelihood of Tanzanian farmers growing this crop, given the fact that a good proportion of the country’s population is employed in the agricultural sector and most of the reported challenges also affect the value chain of other crops.

Influence of socio-demographic factors on the use of mobile phones in accessing rice information on climate change adaptation in Tanzania

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine socio-demographic factors influencing the use of mobile phones in accessing rice information on climate change adaptation by rain-fed farmers in Tanzania with reference to Morogoro region.Design/methodology/approachA cross-sectional research design was used to collect data from 400 randomly selected rain-fed rice farmers owning mobile phones. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection in eight selected wards in two districts of Kilombero and Kilosa districts in Morogoro Region, Tanzania.FindingsThe findings of the study showed that the use of mobile phones to access rice information on climate change adaptation was statistically significantly influenced by respondents’ sex, age, education level, marital status, farm size, farming experience, radio ownership and off-farm incomes. Furthermore, the use of mobile phones in accessing rice information on climate change adaptation among the study districts was not statistically significant.Practical implicationsThis paper provides practical recommendations on how to improve accessibility of rice information through mobile phones on climate change adaptation. Implementation of information delivery system to farmers using mobile phones without ascertaining farmers’ socio-demographic characteristics leads to resource underutilization.Originality/valueThe paper provides appropriate knowledge that is needed in improving access to information through mobile phones by Tanzanian farmers and in other communities in developing countries with the aid of the additional theoretical moderators of unified theory of acceptance and use of technology as the research findings suggest. Moderators’ variables have high influence on farmers’ use of mobile phones on accessing rice information on climate change adaptation.

Combining means-end chain analysis and goal-priming to analyze Tanzanian farmers’ motivations to invest in quality seed of new potato varieties

PurposePotato is a major food staple in Africa, but its production is constrained by poor quality of seed. A recent private–public partnership in Tanzania resulted in introduction of new higher yielding varieties. The purpose of this paper is to examine smallholder farmers’ motivations to invest in the purchase of quality seed of new potato varieties, and if the motivational structure differs by gender.Design/methodology/approachThe paper used means-end chain (MEC) theory combined with goal priming, and laddering interviews on randomly sampled participants (n=45) of an experimental auction conducted among smallholder farmers in Tanzania. The auction was designed to goal-prime respondents on benefits of quality seed. The mental constructs obtained were grouped into attributes, consequences and values, and MECAnalyst software used to generate hierarchical value maps.FindingsFarmers invest in quality seed of a new variety to increase yields, hence income, and also to pursue personal life goals (values) or meet psychosocial needs. The structure of mental constructs associated with the decision to invest in quality seed of a new variety differ by gender.Research limitations/implicationsThe study focused on only two new varieties, hence not robust to all new potato varieties. Results need to be tested under different socioeconomic contexts. Furthermore, the MEC approach does not allow for control of other variables that likely influence farmer adoption decision-making process. Future studies should be designed to tackle these limitations.Practical implicationsInvestment in quality seed of new variety is driven by monetary goals and psychosocial factors, and some of these factors differ between male and female farmers.Originality/valueThis is the first study to explore drivers of farmers’ decision to use quality seed of a new variety using MEC analysis, and role psychosocial factors play.

Exploring Information Seeking Behavior of Farmers’ in Information Related to Climate Change Adaptation Through ICT (CHAI)

In Tanzania, agriculture sector is known for employing more than 70% of the total population. Agriculture sector faces many challenges including climate change. Climate change causes low productivity in agriculture; low productivity is caused due to poor implementation of agricultural policies and strategies. This poor implementation of policies has also caused many farmers to be not competent in climate change adaptation. Over the years, provisions of agricultural advice and extension were provided by various approaches, including training and visit extension, participatory approaches, and farmers’ field schools. However, provision of agricultural advisory and extension service is inefficient. Also, in most cases the usage of most agricultural innovations and technologies developed is limited. A literature review indicates that the main reasons given by Tanzanian farmers for not using improved technology are not lack of knowledge or skill, but rather that the technologies do not contribute towards improvements (e.g., the technologies are not profitable or they imply to high risk). Thus, agricultural extension service needs to be geared towards teaching farmers how to develop innovative and cost effective technologies that are contextualized. Limited numbers of agricultural extension staff and less interactivity of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), such as radio and television, have been mentioned to be among the factors limiting the provision of agricultural advisory and extension services to the majority of farmers in Tanzania. The advancements in ICTs have brought new opportunities for enhancing access to agricultural advisory and extension service for climate change adaptation. In Tanzania, farmers and other actors access agricultural information from various sources such as agricultural extension workers and use of various databases from Internet Services Providers. Also there are different web – and mobile – based farmers’ advisory information systems to support conventional agricultural extension service. These systems are producing bulk amounts of data which makes it difficult for different stakeholders to make an informed decision after data analysis. This calls for the need to develop a tool for data visualization in order to understand hidden patterns from massive data. In this study, a semi-automated text classification was developed to determine the frequently asked keywords from a web and mobile based farmers’ advisory system called UshauriKilimo after being in use for more than 2 years by more than 700 farmers.

Intersections of Gender and Marital Status in Accessing Climate Change Adaptation: Evidence from Rural Tanzania

Climate scholars are increasingly recognizing the importance of gender in climate change vulnerability, but often either dichotomize men and women as homogeneous categories or limit themselves to comparing male- and female-headed households. We use an intersectionality framework to examine how the adaptive strategies of Tanzanian farmers are mediated through their gender and marital statuses. Drawing on focus group discussions and using logistic regression to analyze questionnaire data, we compare the relative adoption of the different adaptive strategies of single, married, divorced, and widowed men and women. Our study shows that, while a woman’s marital status is a vital factor in determining her access to adaptive strategies, it is a less important factor in the case of men. We show that, compared with other women, widows and female divorcees are disadvantaged in the field of agricultural water management, and divorced women assume relatively more income-earning activities outside the farming sector. Finally, we find evidence of livelihood diversification at the household level through specialization by individual household members. Based on the empirical evidence, we develop a typology with which to synthesize the linkages between gender, marital status, and adaptive strategies; and we subsequently emphasize the importance of an intersectionality approach to gender and climate change policy and practice.

The economics and greenhouse gas balance of land conversion to Jatropha: the case of Tanzania

AbstractDue to higher oil prices, abundance of labor and suitable land and its stable political climate, Tanzania attracted many investments in Jatropha. Although several studies on Jatropha's economic potential are available, its true economics are still uncertain. This paper aims to add to the growing body of knowledge on the socio‐economic performance of the Jatropha system by (i) studying the economic potential (net present value – NPV) of the current most prevailing Jatropha system for Tanzanian farmers and its regional differences, by (ii) making a greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and its economic value of the Jatropha activities on regional level, and by (iii) calculating break‐even thresholds for yield and seed price. Therefore, regional yield modeling, regional life‐cycle assessment, and NPV calculations based on Monte Carlo simulations, each with its set of assumptions, are combined. This study shows positive economic potential of Jatropha cultivation in most of the Tanzanian regions. However, the results also show that 13 of 20 Tanzanian regions will not attain a net positive GHG balance within 10 years. This indicates that the environmental impacts might be more restrictive for Jatropha's sustainability potential in Tanzania than the socio‐economic potential. These results are based on the combination of three models, which consists of strong interdisciplinary modeling work. However, this modeling also contains simplifications (e.g., no opportunity cost for ‘marginal’ land) and uncertainties (e.g., using globally modeled potential yield estimations), which have to be considered in the interpretation of the results.

Global warming and global war: Tanzanian farmers' discourse on climate and political disorder

Some Tanzanian farmers say that “the rain is different now” and that postcolonial leaders and development agency experts cannot “bring rain” the way that colonial chiefs once did. Government officers, expatriate administrators, and Pare farmers agree, however, that average annual rainfall has declined dramatically in recent decades – despite rainfall records that show no unambiguous trend. The impression that rainfall has declined is a consequence of a particular cultural interpretation of ecology. This ecocosmology links an orderly environment with orderly relationships among people, and especially orderly claims to resources. Given this linkage between politics and rainfall, the local narrative of declining rainfall over the twentieth century is a metaphor for changing terms of resource entitlement and the ambiguities of power, morality, and social relationships in the postcolonial state and a description of a geophysical process. Understanding this process requires a closer look at the historical course of social change, the cultural roots of environmental narratives, and the political relationships between powerful institutions (such as governments and development agencies) and the rural populations on the periphery of the global economic system. This article therefore draws on recent work on the intersections of culture and power to examine the history of contestation over the social organization of rainmaking, sacred forests, and ecocosmologies in North Pare. By showing how these shifting ideologies of power, legitimacy, and value shape social relations and land management, I argue that the politica ecology paradigm needs a more nuanced vision of “power” and “politics.”

Tanzanian farmers' knowledge and attitudes to GM biotechnology and the potential use of GM crops to provide improved levels of food security. A Qualitative Study

BackgroundGenetically Modified (GM) crops have been championed as one possible method to improve food security and individual nutritional status in sub Saharan Africa. Understanding and acceptability of GM crop technology to farmers and consumers have not been assessed. We developed a qualitative research study involving farmers as both producers and consumers to gauge the understanding of GM crop technology, its acceptability, and identifying issues of concern.MethodsNineteen individual interviews (10 male and 9 female) and five mixed gender focus group discussions with local farmers were conducted in 3 regions in Tanzania. Analysis took place concurrently with data collection. Following initial interviews, subsequent questions were adjusted based on emerging themes.ResultsUnderstanding, awareness and knowledge of GM crop technology and terminology and its potential risks and benefits was very poor in all regions. Receptivity to the potential use of GM crops was, however, high. Respondents focused on the potential benefits of GM crops rather than any potential longer term health risks. A number of factors, most significantly field trial data, would influence farmers' decisions regarding the introduction of GM crop varieties into their farming practice. Understanding of the potential improved health provision possible by changes in agricultural practice and food-related decision making, and the health benefits of a diet containing essential vitamins, minerals and micronutrients is also poor in these communities.ConclusionThis study forms a basis from which further research work can be undertaken. It is important to continue to assess opinions and attitudes of farmers and consumers in sub Saharan Africa towards potential use of GM technologies whilst highlighting the importance of the relationship between agriculture, health and development. This will allow people in the region to make accurate, informed decisions about whether they believe use of GM biotechnology is an appropriate way in which to tackle issues of food security, provide improved health and drive development.

Potentials for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania

Certified market-driven organic agriculture in Africa needs to build upon and strengthen internal natural and social resources in order to bring greater benefit to smallholders. The organic sector in Tanzania is predominantly export-oriented, supported by development funding and aimed at improving incomes. This study is designed to assess and provide a foundation for enhancing organic agriculture's contribution to sustainable livelihoods and food security amongst Tanzanian smallholder farmers. Holistic and multi-perspective analysis revealed that organic agriculture is making efficient use of resources in the current institutional context and building upon existing livelihood strategies. Certified organic agriculture can address issues of sustainable food production and improved farmer livelihoods. However, findings suggest that the international trade focus behind recent efforts by the private sector, donors and the government to commercialize smallholder organic agriculture carries significant risks. Local- and national-level strategies need to incorporate multiple objectives, not only production of high quality products for the market, but also farmer empowerment, household nutrition and sustainable management of natural resources.

Plans, Promises and Problems with Privatization in Tanzania

It is the considered opinion of the World Bank and some developed nations like the United States that the process of privatizing Tanzania's resources (primarily its land and water), in a systematic title process that extends full ownership, will lead to increased agricultural production and greater food security. It is believed that the full implementation of private ownership will attract much needed foreign investment while at the same time allowing local farmers to obtain credit by using their land title as collateral to borrow money to plant cash crops and modernize their farming operations to include mechanization and technical upgrades. Furthermore, proponents of this process of privatization believe that it will expand the tax base and provide a much-needed boost to State revenues for social services. These idealized notions are far from the reality confronting most Tanzanian farmers. This paper intends to show that the process of privatization will be of little benefit to Tanzanian farmers; leaving open the question of who will really benefit from privatization. It is the contention of this author that encouraging ownership by title, as part and parcel of the process of privatization, will actually compromise food security in Tanzania in the long run unless a systematic financing of farmer-led co-operatives precedes it.