Tangible Reinforcement Research Articles

Logistic regression analysis of school anxiety as a predictor of school refusal

School refusal has important repercussions on the lives of children and adolescents, seriously affecting their personal, academic, and social adjustment. Negative attitudes towards school can be caused simultaneously for several reasons and, due to the existing heterogeneity, Kearney, and Silverman (1990) grouped them into four functional conditions: I. Avoidance of school stimuli that generate negative affectivity; II. Avoidance of school situations that generate social aversion or fear of evaluation; II. Capturing the attention of significant others; and IV. Get tangible reinforcements outside of school. Given its tendency to coexist with internalizing disorders, it is essential to understand its correlation with school anxiety, which is one of the significant problemsin the child and adolescent population. In this way, the present study aims to identify the probability of predictive capacity of school anxiety on high school refusal. There were 1786 participants (51% men) aged 15to 18 years (MAge = 16.31; SD = 1.00). The instruments administered were the Spanish version of the School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised (SRAS-R-C; Gonzálvez et al., 2016) and the School Anxiety Inventory (IAES;García-Fernández et al., 2011). The results reveal that depending on the dimension of school anxiety evaluated, it acts as a negative or positive predictor of school refusal, also depending on the type of school refusalassessed. These findings highlight the connection between the avoidance of negative affectivity associated with school and the experience of anxiety in various school settings, emphasizing the need to address both school refusal and anxiety in the educational setting.

Examining patterns suggestive of acquisition during functional analyses: A consecutive controlled series of 116 cases.

The functional analysis approach described by Iwata et al. (1982/1994) has been used widely to determine the variables evoking and maintaining challenging behavior. However, one potential concern with conducting functional analyses is that repeated exposure to contingencies may induce a novel functional relation. To examine the likelihood of these potential iatrogenic effects, we evaluated social test conditions of the functional analysis for 116 participants and searched for patterns of responding indicative of acquisition. Patterns suggestive of acquisition occurred in 13.70% of tangible reinforcement conditions; however, the prevalence was only slightly lower in the attention condition (8.75%). Much lower prevalence was observed for the escape condition (2.13%). When grouped by quotient score, a pattern of acquisition was just as likely to be observed in the attention condition as in the tangible condition. Additionally, patterns indicative of acquisition were no more likely to be observed with participants who emitted automatically reinforced challenging behavior.

The predictive ability of school refusal on high social anxiety in Chilean adolescents

There is a growing interest in quantifying the risk of presenting maladaptive behaviors through the use of multivariate prediction algorithms such as logistic regressions. The objective of this study was to analyze the predictive capacity of school refusal behavior on high levels of social anxiety. The study used a sample of 895 Chilean adolescents (54.3% girls) aged between 14 and 17 years. The School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised (SRAS-R) and the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) were administered. The results revealed that adolescents with school refusal presented significantly higher scores in social anxiety than their peers with low scores in school refusal. This is due to feelings of social aversion, negative affectivity, fear of evaluation, or the use of this behavior to pursue the attention of significant others. This type of school refusal was found to be a positive and statistically significant predictor of high scores for social anxiety. On the contrary, when school refusal is based on obtaining tangible reinforcement outside the school, this factor acts as a negative and statistically significant predictor of high scores for social anxiety. These findings are discussed with reference to the differences found according to the type of school refusal behavior and its impact on the appearance of high levels of social anxiety.

Increasing novel toy play actions in children with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disabilities

ABSTRACT Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can often demonstrate restricted and repetitive patterns of free play with toys, limiting their contact with the social and tangible reinforcement that is the result of more varied play. Lag schedules of reinforcement have been shown to increase novelty and variability of play actions in children with intellectual disability (ID; Baruni, R. R., Rapp, J. T., Lipe, S. L., & Novotny, M. A. (2014). Using lag schedules to increase toy play variability for children with intellectual disabilities. Behavioral interventions, 29(1), 21–35.). The current study extended the findings of Baruni et al. in three boys with ASD and ID, aged 8–10 years, in the United Arab Emirates. Novel actions increased for all participants during Lag 2 conditions following a systematic prompting strategy. Toy engagement, while variable, either increased or maintained across the intervention period. Maintenance and generalisation of behaviour change are discussed.

Social validity of pediatric feeding treatment components across time

AbstractThere is limited research on the social validity of treatment for pediatric feeding disorders. When it is assessed, the evaluation of treatment acceptability may focus on a few specific procedures or the entire program post‐treatment. This report took place within a home‐based behavior‐analytic treatment model in Australia. Caregivers of eight children (aged 3–11) with pediatric feeding disorders provided treatment acceptability ratings for the full range of treatment procedures, at pre‐ and post‐treatment. Caregivers were also provided the opportunity to provide open‐ended responses. Results showed that caregivers unanimously gave strong ratings of the importance of goals, and preferred that treatment be effective and quick, over minimizing side effects. Procedures experienced by all caregivers (differential attention, tangible reinforcement, nonremoval of the spoon, and re‐presentation) were rated highly at admission and increased at discharge, with the exception of tangible electronics. Caregivers of children receiving additional procedures for acceptance or clean mouth also provided high acceptability ratings for these at both timepoints. This report is the first to examine pre‐ and post‐acceptability measures on the full range of treatment procedures with caregivers experiencing treatment. Results inform future research and will serve to improve efforts to disseminate behavior analysis as an acceptable and effective treatment for pediatric feeding disorders.

Improving Eye Contact and Gaze Following in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Systematic Withdrawal of Stimulus Prompts and Tangible Reinforcers

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a procedure involving systematic withdrawal of stimulus prompts and tangible reinforcers on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of eye contact and gaze following for two children with ASD in China. Two boys with ASD (5-6 years of age) participated. A concurrent multiple probe design across behaviors and participants was used. Results indicate that the procedure effectively established eye contact and gaze following for both children. Generalization to new instructors occurred in the free play setting, and the acquired behaviors were maintained for 1 month following training. Eye contact was maintained with social consequences for one child; the other child required tokens along with social consequences to maintain eye contact. Social consequences were sufficient to maintain gaze following for both children.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT USED BY ENGLISH TEACHER FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD)

Students who has special needs, need to be taught with special education. The fact is students with special education cannot put in the class with students in general school especially in the learning activity. One of the students with SEN that needs more attention during the classroom activity is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In this case, using kinds of reinforcements as a strategy to manage student’s behavior and also catch student’s attention during the learning process is needed. Therefore, this study aims to identify types of reinforcement usually used by the English teacher at SLB Negeri 1 Denpasar, in order to reveal what kind of reinforcement that usually used by the English Teacher for students with ASD and how the implementation of the reinforcement used. This research utilized a qualitative approach and descriptive method. The subject of this study was one English teacher at Sekolah Luar Biasa (SLB) Negeri 1 Denpasar. The data collection using reinforcement checklist, interview guide, and audio recording. This research showed, there are 3 types of reinforcement the teacher usually used, such positive verbal reinforcement, positive non-verbal reinforcement, and tangible reinforcement. The Implementation was looking at the students need such: attract students’ interest, appreciation and control students’ behavior.

Conducting In-Home Functional Analyses of Aggression and Self-Injury Exhibited by Boys with Fragile X Syndrome.

Boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS) are at increased risk for exhibiting aggression and self-injury that can be extremely disruptive to families. Few studies, however, have examined the extent to which social-environmental factors can influence these behaviors, particularly in home settings. Caregivers of 32 boys with FXS, aged 3 to 10 years, were coached by a board-certified behavior analyst to implement a functional analysis (FA) with their child in their home over 2 days. The functions identified in the FAs were validated by behavioral interventions conducted through telehealth over 12 weeks. Social functions for aggression and self-injury were identified in 29 (90.6%) cases, with the most common functions identified being escape from demands/transitions and/or tangible reinforcement. Subsequent function-based behavioral interventions (i.e., functional communication training) implemented for 22 cases by telehealth resulted in decreased rates of aggression and self-injury by 74% to 100%. These data underscore the significant impact that social-environmental factors can have on the development and maintenance of aggression and self-injury in FXS. Conducting early home-based behavioral interventions designed to increase functional communication skills may therefore be an effective solution for the treatment of aggression and self-injury in FXS in the long term.

School Refusal Behavior Profiles, Optimism/Pessimism, and Personality Traits in Spanish Children

The relationship between school refusal behavior (SRB) profiles and personality traits has received little attention from investigators. Identifying the profiles of students with school attendance problems may improve the understanding of the characteristics defining these students. The aim of this study was to identify different SRB profiles and analyze the relationship between these profiles, and optimism/pessimism and personality traits. The School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised, the Youth Life Orientation Test, and the Big Five Questionnaire were administrated to 739 Spanish students aged 8–11 (Mage = 9.92; SD = 1.12). Pearson’s correlation coefficients revealed a significant association between personality dimensions and SRB. Three distinct profiles were identified: (1) SRB by negative reinforcement (high scores on avoiding school-related stimuli provoking negative affectivity), (2) SRB by positive reinforcement (high scores on pursuing positive tangible reinforcement outside of school), and (3) Low SRB. The SRB profile by positive reinforcement scored higher on Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness, and Optimism, whereas the SRB profile by negative reinforcement scored higher on Neuroticism and Pessimism. More statically significant differences were found between the negative and positive reinforcement profiles. The role of negative personality traits and pessimism as risk factors for students who are truant or refuse to attend school are discussed.

Evaluating the generality and social acceptability of early friendship skills.

The development of prosocial skills is considered pivotal to childhood development. The friendship unit of the Preschool Life Skills program teaches early prosocial skills likely to facilitate socially desirable behaviors in young children; however, the friendship unit is the most understudied unit and has produced modest, inconsistent outcomes across children. The current study aimed to evaluate procedures necessary to (a) teach friendship skills to 4 children, with and without developmental disabilities, in an applied context and (b) promote the use of these skills with a same-aged peer. Teaching 5 friendship skills in a 1-to-1 format with the addition of tangible reinforcement, if necessary, was efficacious at increasing the children's friendship skills with an adult. Additional tactics were necessary to promote prosociality with a peer. We discuss refinements to the teaching procedures and additional considerations to improve the social acceptability and durability of prosocial skills.

School Refusal Behavior and Aggression in Spanish Adolescents.

In order to reduce school attendance problems and aggressive behavior, it is essential to determine the relationship between both variables. The aim of this study was twofold: (1) to examine the mean differences in scores on aggression, based on school refusal behavior, and (2) to analyze the predictive capacity of high scores on aggression, based on school refusal behavior factors. The sample consisted of 1455 Spanish secondary school students, aged 13–17 (M = 14.85; SD = 1.56). The School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised (I. Avoidance of negative affectivity, II. Escape from aversive social and/or evaluative situations, III. Pursuit of attention from significant others, and IV. Pursuit of tangible reinforcement outside of school) and the Aggression Questionnaire (I. Physical Aggression, II. Verbal Aggression, III. Anger, and IV. Hostility) were used. Results indicated that students having high levels of Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility received significantly higher scores on school refusal behavior. In most cases, school refusal behavior was found to be a positive and statistically significant predictor of aggression. Students that base their school refusal on the pursuit of tangible reinforcements outside of school earned higher scores, and other functional conditions underlying school refusal behavior were found to be associated with aggression issues. The role of aggression as a risk factor for school refusal behavior is discussed.

Сравнительный анализ эффективности использования прямого и генерализованного условного подкрепления при формировании навыка решения простых арифметических задач у ребенка с РАС

Within the framework of the applied behavior analysis, a comparison of the effectiveness of the direct and the generalized reinforcement was made during the teaching the skill of distinguishing arithmetic operations in mathematical problems. The study was conducted in two phases over two weeks with a 9-year-old girl with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The first phase included training of multiplication and addition tasks, using tangible reinforcement, compared to the training of the arithmetic performance in division and subtraction tasks, using generalized reinforcement. The second phase included the training of discrimination between different arithmetic operations, but tangible and generalized reinforcements were used in variable mode. The results showed no differences in the effectiveness of both generalized and tangible reinforcements in the teaching process. The participant successfully learned to discriminate between different arithmetic operations as addition, multiplication, subtraction and division in single-component tasks.

Adaptation of contingency management for stimulant use disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic

The current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has rapidly spread across the world. Individuals with stimulant use disorder are a vulnerable population, who are particularly at risk of negative outcomes during this pandemic due to several risk factors, including mental and physical comorbidities, weakened immune responses, high-risk behaviors, and barriers to healthcare access. Engaging patients with stimulant use disorder in regular treatment has become even more difficult during this pandemic, which has resulted in many cuts to addiction treatment programs. The most effective treatment options for stimulant use disorder are psychosocial interventions, which rely heavily on in-person interactions, posing an added challenge during physical distancing. In particular, contingency management (CM) is a behavioral therapy that utilizes tangible reinforcements to incentivize targeted behavior changes, and is an effective treatment intervention used for stimulant use disorder. This paper highlights the treatment challenges for individuals with stimulant use disorder and the importance of adapting CM programs during COVID-19. We present strategies for how CM can be adapted and its role expanded in a safe way during the COVID-19 pandemic to help prevent infection spread, stimulant use relapse, and worsened psychosocial consequences.

Assessment and treatment of response to name for children with autism spectrum disorder: Toward an efficient intervention model.

Response to name (RTN) is an early developmental milestone, deficits in which are associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study extends previous research by evaluating an assessment and treatment model for RTN with 13 children with ASD. For all participants, phase 1 was a naturalistic social baseline. The 9 children who did not meet mastery criteria in phase 1 underwent a series of treatment conditions in phase 2. In phase 3, treatment components were removed, and generalization was assessed. Results indicated that tangible reinforcement procedures can produce rapid increases in discriminated RTN, sometimes without prompts. The total number of trials to mastery were reduced in the current study relative to previous research. Results also provide preliminary evidence to suggest that the phase 1 baseline condition may produce distinct patterns of RTN that could be used to predict treatment effects and further reduce trials to mastery in future work.

Perfiles de rechazo escolar: Identificación y comparación entre adolescentes ecuatorianos y chilenos

School refusal behavior is defined as any child or youth’s difficulty to attend classes or to remain in the school. This behavior could be based or not on anxiety and prevalence rates from 5 to 28 % if it is considered any type of rejection towards the school. Adolescents demonstrating school refusal behaviors are very likely to demonstrate poorer academic performance, more stress, behavior problems and family conflicts. The psychological, social and educational relevance of the present study is due to the scarce of previous studies that have evaluated the school refusal behavior in Latin America and the high dropout rates that they face in this region. This study is focused on two countries, Ecuador and Chile, in order to identify possible differences regarding school refusal behavior scores between adolescents in both countries. The aim of this investigation was to examine the mean differences scores on school refusal behavior and the formation of school refusal behavior profiles in Ecuadorian and Chilean adolescents to determine whether these results differ from one another based on the geographical origin. In this study participated a total of 4266 students aged between 13 and 17 years old from Ecuador ( M = 14.83, SD = 1.86; N = 1588) and Chile ( M = 15.23; SD = 1.26; N = 2678). These students were selected by cluster random sampling. The measure used to assess the school refusal behavior was the School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised (SRAS-R). The SRAS-R is a self-report measure that assesses the relative strength of four proposed functions, or maintaining variables, of school refusal behavior: Factor I. Avoidance of school-based stimuli that provoke Negative Affectivity; Factor II. Escape from aversive Social/Evaluative situations at school; Factor III. Pursuit of Attention from Significant others; and Factor IV. Pursuit of Tangible Reinforcement outside of school. The SRAS-R was administered during the school day (a session of approximately 20 minutes) in groups who completed the scale anonymously in accordance with the ethical standards and also emphasizing the voluntary nature of the test. Regarding the results, mean differences scores on school refusal behavior revealed statistically significant differences of small magnitude with Chilean students reaching higher mean scores in school refusal behavior in order to pursuit the attention from significant others and to obtain tangible reinforces external to the school, in comparison with their equals from Ecuador. Cluster analysis confirmed four school refusal profiles in both countries: Low School Refusal Behavior (characterized by low school refusal behavior scores for the four factors of the SRAS-R), High School Refusal Behavior (characterized by high school refusal behavior scores for the four factors of the SRAS-R), Anxious School Refusal Behavior (profile that combines high scores on the first three factors of the SRAS-R and moderate scores for the fourth) and Absentee School Refusal Behavior (profile that combines moderate levels for the first three factors of the SRAS-R but high in the fourth factor). The results revealed a small variability between the school refusal behavior profiles across the countries. However, Chilean adolescents scored significantly higher than Ecuadorians in school refusal based on the search for tangible external reinforcements. The results of this research supported a low variability of the findings according to the country. The generalization of these results supports the transcultural validity of the SRAS-R and emphasizes that Ecuador and Chile share a similar situation regarding school refusal behavior. Some limitations of this work are considered, and they are proposed as future lines of research. To conclude, the results are discussed taking into account the defining cultural characteristics of each country.

Psychometric Properties of School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised: Parent Version in Iranian Population

Objective: This study aimed at evaluating the factor validity of the Kearny school refusal assessment scale-revised: parent version among parents of school students in Urmia City, Iran. Methods: The study population comprised students in the first, second, and third grades of elementary schools in Urmia (N=18750). Of them, 351 students from 5 schools were selected using a multistage cluster sampling method. Then, They responded to the Kearny school refusal assessment scale-revised: parent version. To assess the construct validity of this scale, confirmatory factor analysis and internal consistency were used. Results: The goodness of fit index of the confirmatory factor analysis model indicated a relatively good fit of the data with factor structure of the school refusal assessment scale-revised and confirming the existence of four characters of school stimulus, evaluative situations, seeking caregivers’ attention, and tangible reinforcements, as school refusal characters. Also, the Cronbach alpha coefficient values indicate the stability of the measurement of the whole scale as well as its subscales. Conclusion: Based on these results, the school refusal scale has good statistic characters and the 4-factor mentioned model has good construct validity and help clinicians to determine the symptoms and causes of school refusal behavior.

Alta y baja presencia en la búsqueda de refuerzos tangibles fuera del ámbito escolar: diferencias de perfeccionismo en población ecuatoriana

El perfeccionismo muestra un carácter multidimensional cuya característica principal en los sujetos que lo poseen es establecerse estándares excesivamente altos, autoevaluándose con demasiada rigurosidad. Por este motivo, los estudios que lo abordan han enfocado su conceptualización en observar la tendencia a trastornos psicopatológicos. Por otro lado, el rechazo escolar, entre otros aspectos, muestra una de las causas cuya lógica recae en la búsqueda de obtener recompensas positivas fuera del ámbito escolar. Es decir, ese rechazo se centra en la negativa a asistir al centro educativo ya que es considerado aburrido y se prefiere estar con los amigos o realizando actividades recreativas. El objetivo del siguiente trabajo fue analizar las diferencias estadísticamente significantes de perfeccionismo con estudiantes con altos y bajos niveles de la búsqueda de refuerzos tangibles fuera del ámbito escolar. Se utilizaron el Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS) para evaluar el perfeccionismo, y la School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised for Children (SRAS-R-C) para medir el rechazo escolar. La muestra de la población seleccionada alcanzó un total de 1920 alumnos de entre 1º y 3º de Bachillerato. Los resultados arrojan diferencias en los grupos con altos y bajos niveles del IV factor del SRAS-R-C, en Perfeccionismo Socialmente Prescrito (PSP), Perfeccionismo Auto Orientado Esfuerzos (PAO-E) y Perfeccionismo Auto Orientado Crítica (PAOC), observando puntuaciones más altas en PSP (d = .37), PAO-E (d = .38), y PAO-C (d = .14) en aquellos estudiantes con altos niveles de rechazo escolar frente a sus iguales con niveles más bajos de rechazo escolar. En conclusión, el presente estudio colabora con un nuevo conocimiento en el ámbito científico-educativo, e incita a seguir investigando sobre el tema, teniendo en cuenta la repercusión a nivel psicológico y académico que puede contribuir en la población juvenil ecuatoriana.

Prevalencia del rechazo escolar según sexo y curso en adolescentes ecuatorianos

La prevalencia del rechazo escolar es difícil de determinar debido a la discrepancia en la definición del constructo y a la falta de información nacional. En este sentido, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar las diferencias de prevalencia del rechazo escolar, entendido como la resistencia a ir a la escuela o a permanecer en esta, en función del sexo y curso académico. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 1,786 estudiantes ecuatorianos con edades comprendidas entre los 15 y los 18 años (Medad = 16.31; DE = 1.01). Se utilizó la School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised for Children (SRAS-R-C), cuyos factores evalúan la evitación de estímulos que producen afectividad negativa (Factor I), el escape de la aversión social y/o situaciones evaluativas (Factor II), la búsqueda de atención de personas significativas (Factor III) y la búsqueda de refuerzos tangibles fuera de la escuela (Factor IV). Para establecer si existían diferencias entre el porcentaje de estudiantes clasificados con alta conducta de rechazo escolar en función del sexo y el curso académico, se utilizó la prueba Z de diferencia de proporciones. La proporción de chicas fue significativamente mayor en el Factor I, mientras que el porcentaje de chicos fue significativamente superior en el Factor IV. Las diferencias significativas en función del curso se hallaron en el Factor I entre primero y tercero y entre segundo y tercero de bachillerato, y en el Factor IV entre primero y tercero. Se discuten las implicaciones prácticas de estos hallazgos.

Rechazo escolar y optimismo y pesimismo en una muestra de adolescentes ecuatorianos

Tanto el rechazo escolar como el optimismo y el pesimismo son constructos ampliamente estudiados en el ámbito escolar por su impacto en el logro académico y el bienestar emocional de los estudiantes. Sin embargo, son escasos los estudios que han analizado la relación entre ambas variables.Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo analizar las diferencias en optimismo y pesimismo entre estudiantes con altas y bajas puntuaciones en rechazo escolar. 1,786 adolescentes ecuatorianos de entre 15 y 18 años (Medad = 16.31; DE = 1.01) respondieron a la School Refusal Assessment Scale-Revised for Children (SRAS-R-C) y al Youth Life Orientation Test (YLOT). La prueba t de Student de diferencias de medias para muestras independientes reveló que los estudiantes con bajos niveles de rechazo escolar basado en la evitación de estímulos que producen afectividad negativa, en el escape de la aversión social y/o situaciones evaluativas, así como en la búsqueda de refuerzos tangibles fuera de la escuela, puntuaron significativamente más alto en optimismo. Por otra parte, los estudiantes con altos niveles de rechazo escolar por evitación de estímulos que producen afectividad negativa, por el escape de la aversión social y/o situaciones evaluativas y por la búsqueda de atención de personas significativas obtuvieron puntuaciones significativamente más altas en pesimismo.Estos resultados proporcionan información relevante para el diseño de programas de intervención en actitudes pesimistas del alumnado que manifiesta alto rechazo a la escuela.

Response to name in children with autism: Treatment, generalization, and maintenance

Deficits in response to name (RTN) are an early indicator of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and RTN is a treatment goal in many early intervention curricula for children with ASD. However, little research has empirically evaluated methods for increasing RTN in children with ASD. We evaluated a series of conditions designed to increase RTN for 4 children with ASD using a multielement experimental design. The schedules of tangible reinforcement were thinned after mastery and generalization was tested across people and contexts. Tangible reinforcers were necessary to increase RTN for all 4 participants, and the schedule of reinforcement was successfully thinned with all participants after intervention. Generalization was also observed across people and experimental contexts.