Tanga Region Research Articles

Assessment of Decentralized Decision-Making on Livestock Management in Miombo Woodlands of Tanga and Morogoro regions, Tanzania: Bridging Acts and Practice

Despite legal reforms such as the Local Government (District Authorities) Act of 1982 and the Forest Act of 2002, which decentralize forest management in Tanzania’s villages, the persistent degradation of Miombo woodland forests, primarily due to livestock activities, raises concerns about the effectiveness of these reforms. This study compares the provisions of these acts with on-ground realities through data from 27 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 45 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). Thematic analysis using NVIVO 12 software identified four key discrepancies: decision-making structures, decision-making processes, gender involvement, and village collaboration. Findings show that villagers often unknowingly delegate legislative power to leaders, decision-making is politicized with minimal stakeholder engagement, gender inclusivity is minimal, and villages manage forests independently rather than collaboratively. These gaps have led to biased decisions, conflicts among user groups, forest encroachment, and the neglect of women's needs, exacerbating forest degradation. To address these issues, the study recommends capacity building through leadership and technical training for village councils, community education on legal rights, and improved transparency via public forums and accessible reporting. These initiatives aim to empower local communities and foster sustainable management of Miombo woodland forests

Retraction Note: Determinants of viral load suppression failure among HIV adults on ARV attending health care facilities: a retrospective study in Tanga region, Tanzania.

Retraction Note: Determinants of viral load suppression failure among HIV adults on ARV attending health care facilities: a retrospective study in Tanga region, Tanzania.

Occurrence and unlimited spread of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) in Tanzania: A potential economic threat to the citrus industry

Citrus production is a cornerstone of Tanzania's agricultural sector, supporting economic development and food security. However, the industry faces a critical threat from the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), the primary vector of the destructive Huanglongbing (HLB) disease. This study investigates the distribution, abundance, and environmental drivers of D. citri and the African citrus triozid (Trioza erytreae) in major citrus-growing regions of Tanzania. Surveys conducted between March and May 2023 revealed the presence of D. citri in the Tanga and Morogoro regions, including the first documented occurrence in the Tanga region. Conversely, T. erytrae was confined to the Arusha region. Altitude emerged as a significant factor influencing psyllid abundance. D. citri populations decreased with increasing altitude, while T. erytrae exhibited the opposite trend. Temperature also showed correlations with psyllid populations, though additional research is needed to fully elucidate these relationships. Citrus variety significantly influenced D. citri abundance, with Late Valencia (Kitenesi) being the most susceptible. Importantly, several varieties showed no presence of D. citri, offering potential sources of resistance. The intensity of new flush growth was strongly correlated with psyllid abundance. These findings highlight the urgent need for region-specific and altitude-tailored citrus pest management strategies. The identification of potentially HLB-resistant citrus varieties provides a promising avenue for breeding programs. This research offers critical insights to protect Tanzania's citrus industry and ensure the sustainable production of this vital economic crop. Keywords: Citrus, Citrus greening, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, Huanglongbing, Trioza erytreae, Distribution, Altitude, Tanzania

Exploring The Drivers of Entrepreneurial Intentions Among Farmers in Tanzania's Agricultural Sector

Purpose: This paper investigates the entrepreneurial intentions of orange farmers in Muheza, Tanzania, by validating the extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Design/Methodology/ Approach: The study used a quantitative method approach, with cluster and simple random sampling, to recruit 349 orange farmers. The survey was conducted on 349 small-scale orange farmers in Muheza. To test the model, the constructs of entrepreneurship training, farmers’ attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behaviour control and entrepreneurial intention inputs were validated, followed by factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Findings: The study's results revealed the crucial role of perceived behaviour control and attitudes in driving the entrepreneurial intention of orange farmers. This significant influence underscores the importance of these factors in the development of entrepreneurial intention among orange farmers. It was also found that attitudes and perceived behaviour control predicted the entrepreneurial intention of orange farmers but not subjective norms, providing valuable insights for future research and policy development. Research Limitation: This study primarily focused on orange farmers in the Tanga Region, specifically in the Muheza District. Practical Implication: The findings suggest a clear path for action. To foster and enhance the entrepreneurial intentions of orange farmers, the government and policymakers should concentrate on instilling positive attitudes and controlling perceived behaviour. By promoting a positive stance toward entrepreneurship, we can significantly boost the willingness of orange farmers to engage in commercial farming, thereby contributing to the growth and development of Tanzania's agricultural sector. Social Implication: The study recommends policy options focusing on cultivating positive attitudes and perceived behaviour control among orange farmers to increase entrepreneurial intention, requiring concerted efforts from the government and policymakers. Originality / Value/ Novelty: It contributes to the body of knowledge, addressing the gap regarding the drivers influencing orange farmers' entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, establishing validated drivers of entrepreneurial intention among Tanzanian orange farmers could significantly assist the government in promoting economic development and achieving its vision of becoming a semi-industrialized country.

Gender Roles and Practices in Land Access, Ownership and Utilization in West Usambara, Tanzania

Tanzania's land laws protect and guarantees gender equality in access, ownership, and utilization of land. However, the extent to which these legal frameworks have enabled gender equality in the country regarding access, ownership, and utilization of land is not well known. This paper assessed gender relations in access, ownership, and utilization of land in West Usambara Mountains Lushoto District, Tanga Region, North Eastern Tanzania. A purposive sampling of 100 respondents (49 men and 51 women) was obtained to participate in the study. A structured questionnaire was used to interview respondents and focus group discussions with key informants were conducted. Qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis techniques including thematic analysis of texts and indexing. Results show that despite a progressive legal framework, women are still marginalized in land access, ownership, and utilization. This is because of the co-existence of dissimilar structures (traditional, formal and religious land laws), as well as long-established traditional that continue to perpetuate gender disparity. It is proposed that efforts should be made to empower women to use the existing legal structures to demand and promote own land rights.

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania.

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature-humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76-78), moderate THI (79-81), and high THI (82-84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids-not-fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid-not-fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids-not-fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.

Lack of selection of antimalarial drug resistance markers after intermittent preventive treatment of schoolchildren (IPTsc) against malaria in northeastern Tanzania

ObjectiveIntermittent Preventive Treatment of schoolchildren (IPTsc) is recommended by WHO as a strategy to protect against malaria; to explore whether IPTsc with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) or artesunate-amodiaquine (ASAQ) cause a selection of molecular markers in Plasmodium falciparum genes associated with resistance in children in seven schools in Tanga region, Tanzania. MethodsSNPs in P. falciparum genes Pfmdr1, Pfexo, Pfkelch13, and Pfcrt and copy number variations in Pfplasmepsin-2 and Pfmdr1 were assessed in samples collected at 12 months (visit 4, n=74) and 20 months (visit 6, n=364) after initiation of IPTsc and compared with the baseline prevalence (n=379). ResultsThe prevalence of Pfmdr1 N86 and Pfexo 415G was >99% and 0%, respectively without any temporal differences observed. The prevalence of Pfmdr1 184F changed significantly from baseline (52.2%) to visit 6 (64.6%) (χ2=6.11, P=0.013), but no differences were observed between the treatment arms (χ2=0.05, P=0.98). Finally, only minor differences in the amplification of Pfmdr1 were observed; from 10.2% at baseline to 16.7% at visit 6 (χ2=0.98, P=0.32). ConclusionsThe IPTsc strategy does not seem to pose a risk for the selection of markers associated with DP or ASAQ resistance. Continuously and timely surveillance of markers of antimalarial drug resistance is recommended.

Efficacy of ivermectin and albendazole combination in suppressing transmission of lymphatic filariasis following mass administration in Tanzania: a prospective cohort study

BackgroundPreventive chemotherapy with ivermectin and albendazole (IA) in mass drug administration (MDA) programs for all at-risk populations is the core public health intervention to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF). Achieving this goal depends on drug effectiveness in reducing parasite reservoirs in the community to halt transmission. We assessed the efficacy of ivermectin and albendazole in clearing microfilariae and circulating filarial antigens (CFA) following MDA.MethodsThis community-based prospective study was conducted in Mkinga district, Tanga region, Tanzania, from November 2018 to June 2019. A total of 4115 MDA-eligible individuals were screened for CFA using Filarial test strips. CFA positives were re-examined for microfilariae by microscopy. CFA and microfilariae positive individuals were enrolled and received IA through MDA campaign. The status of microfilariae and CFA was monitored before MDA, and on day 7 and six-month following MDA. The primary efficacy outcomes were the clearance rates of microfilariae on day 7 and six-months, and CFA at 6 months of post-MDA. The McNemar test assessed the proportions of microfilariae positive pre- and post-MDA, while Chi-square tests were utilized to examine factors associated with CFA status six months post-MDA.ResultsOut of 4115 individuals screened, 239 (5.8%) tested positive for CFA, of whom 11 (4.6%) were also positive for microfilariae. Out of the ten microfilariae-positive individuals available for follow-up on day 7, nine tested negative, yielding a microfilariae clearance rate of 90% [95% confidence interval (CI): 59.6–98.2%]. Participants who tested negative for microfilariae on day 7 remained free of microfilariae six months after MDA. However, those who did not clear microfilariae on day-7 remained positive six-months post-MDA. The McNemar test revealed a significant improvement in microfilariae clearance on day 7 following MDA (P = 0.02). Out of 183 CFA-positive individuals who were available at 6-month follow-up, 160 (87.4%) remained CFA positive, while 23 became CFA negative. The CFA clearance rate at 6 months post-MDA was 12.6% (95% CI: 8.5–8.5%). There was no significant association of variability in ivermectin plasma exposure, measured by maximum concentration or area under the curve, and the clearance status of microfilariae or CFA post-MDA.ConclusionsPreventive chemotherapy with IA effectively clears microfilariae within a week. However, it is less effective in clearing CFA at six months of post-MDA. The low clearance rate for filarial antigenemia underscores the need for alternative drug combinations and additional preventive measures to achieve LF elimination by 2030.

Effect of standardized patient simulation-based pedagogics embedded with lecture in enhancing mental status evaluation cognition among nursing students in Tanzania: A longitudinal quasi-experimental study

BackgroundNurses around the world are expected to demonstrate competence in performing mental status evaluation. However, there is a gap between what is taught in class and what is practiced for patients with mental illness among nursing students during MSE performance. It is believed that proper pedagogics may enhance this competence. A longitudinal controlled quasi-experimental study design was used to evaluate the effect of using standardized patient simulation-based pedagogics embedded with a lecture in enhancing mental status evaluation cognition among nursing students in Tanzania.MethodsA longitudinal controlled quasi-experimental study design with pre-and post-test design studied 311 nursing students in the Tanga and Dodoma regions. The Standardized Patient Simulation-Based Pedagogy (SPSP) package was administered to the intervention group. Both groups underwent baseline and post-test assessments using a Interviewer-adminstered structured questionnaire as the primary data collection tool, which was benchmarked from previous studies. The effectiveness of the intervention was assessed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, specifically the Difference in Difference linear mixed model, and the t-test was carried out using IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software, version 25.ResultsThe participant’s mean age was 21 years ± 2.69 with 68.81% of the students being female. Following the training Students in the intervention group demonstrated a significant increase in MSE cognition post-test, with an overall mean score of (M ± SD = 22.15 ± 4.42;p = < 0.0001), against (M ± SD = 16.52 ± 6.30) for the control group.ConclusionA significant difference exists in the levels of cognition, among nursing students exposed to Mental Status Evaluation (MSE) materials through Standardized Patient Simulation-Based Pedagogy (SPSP) embeded with lectures. When MSE materials are delivered through SPSP along with lectures, the results are significantly superior to using lectures pedagogy alone.

Barriers to viral load suppression among adolescents living with HIV on anti-retroviral therapy: a retrospective study in Tanga, Tanzania.

Despite the decreased incidence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Tanzania, the number of adolescents living with HIV is increasing. This study aimed to describe factors independently associated with viral load non-suppression among adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) on ART in the Tanga region. We conducted a retrospective study of routinely collected data from ALHIV on ART from October 2018 to April 2022. We extracted data from the Care and Treatment Clinics form number 2 (CTC2) database that included age, sex, BMI, World Health Organization HIV clinical disease stage, marital status, ART duration, viral load suppression, facility level, and Dolutegravir (DTG)-based regimen. We did descriptive analysis using frequencies to describe the study participants' socio-demographic and clinical characteristics. The Cox proportional hazard regression model was used to identify factors associated with viral load non-suppression (VLS). Viral load non-suppression was defined as viral load ≥ 1000 copies/ml. A total of 4735 ALHIV on ART were extracted from CTC2, then 2485 were excluded (2186 missed viral load results, 246 were lost to follow-up, and 53 deaths). 2250 ALHIV on ART were tested for viral load, of whom 2216 (98.62%) adolescents were on first-line ART, and 2024 (89.96%) participants were virally suppressed, while 226 (10.04%) were virally non-suppressed. In addition, 2131 (94.71%) of participants were using a DTG-based regimen; of them, 1969 (92.40%) were virally suppressed. Not using a DTG-based regimen (HR: 9.36, 95% CI 3.41-15.31) and dispensary facility level (HR: 3.61, 95% CI 1.44-7.03) were independently associated with increased hazard for viral load non-suppression. In addition, adolescents aged between 15 and 19years are less likely to be virally suppressed (HR: 0.55, 95% CI 0.30-0.99). The dispensary facility level and not using a DTG-based regimen were significantly associated with viral load non-suppression. HIV intervention strategies should ensure a DTG-based regimen utilization in all adolescents living with HIV, and techniques used by higher-level health facilities should be disseminated to lower-level facilities.

A longitudinal study of tick infestations and management practices in young stock smallholder dairy cattle in the Tanga region, Tanzania

A longitudinal study involving cohorts of young stock animals (&lt;3 years old) kept on smallholder dairy farms in the Tanga region, Tanzania, was conducted to identify and quantify tick infestations and describe on-farm tick management practices. A total of 549 young stock were followed for 23 months, and 3127 grazing and acaricide treatment observations were obtained. Tick counts were low in the present study, and while more than 30% of animals had a tick on one occasion, most animals had no ticks at most examinations. The most commonly encountered spp. were R. appendiculatus, Boophilus spp., A. variegatum and R. evertsi. Most animals were zero-grazed, a management system that significantly limits animal exposure to ticks; however, grazed calves were more than three times more likely to carry R. appendiclatus and Boophilus spp. ticks than zero-grazed calves were (OR [odds ratio] = 4.4, P &lt; 0.001; 3.6, P &lt; 0.001). There were no significant differences among sampling rounds in the numbers of animals carrying R. appendiculatus ticks (likelihood ratio test P = 0.520). Hand spraying was the common method used, acaricides that require on farm dilution were most commonly used, and most farmers used this method at concentrations considerably less than those recommended by the manufacturer, most likely due to poor understanding, high cost (tempting them to over dilute) and weak extension/veterinary services. Variation in acaricide treatment frequency was not associated with variations in tick attachment, suggesting that most farms were under a strong acaricide regime or at irregular intervals or with tick-building resistance. Our findings suggest that geographic variations in vector densities might partly influence the extent of infection caused by tick-borne pathogens. The applicability of this study to large and extensive cattle production systems is recommended to widen the scope of tick management practices while generating additional data that will inform national tick and tick-borne disease control policy reform in Tanzania.

Efficacy and safety of artemether-lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in mainland Tanzania, 2018

BackgroundThe use of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is recommended by the World Health Organization for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Artemether-lumefantrine (AL) is the most widely adopted first-line ACT for uncomplicated malaria in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), including mainland Tanzania, where it was introduced in December 2006. The WHO recommends regular assessment to monitor the efficacy of the first-line treatment specifically considering that artemisinin partial resistance was reported in Greater Mekong sub-region and has been confirmed in East Africa (Rwanda and Uganda). The main aim of this study was to assess the efficacy and safety of AL for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in mainland Tanzania.MethodsA single-arm prospective anti-malarial drug efficacy trial was conducted in Kibaha, Mlimba, Mkuzi, and Ujiji (in Pwani, Morogoro, Tanga, and Kigoma regions, respectively) in 2018. The sample size of 88 patients per site was determined based on WHO 2009 standard protocol. Participants were febrile patients (documented axillary temperature ≥ 37.5 °C and/or history of fever during the past 24 h) aged 6 months to 10 years. Patients received a 6-dose AL regimen by weight twice a day for 3 days. Clinical and parasitological parameters were monitored during 28 days of follow-up to evaluate the drug efficacy and safety.ResultsA total of 653 children were screened for uncomplicated malaria and 349 (53.7%) were enrolled between April and August 2018. Of the enrolled children, 345 (98.9%) completed the 28 days of follow-up or attained the treatment outcomes. There were no early treatment failures, but recurrent infections were higher in Mkuzi (35.2%) and Ujiji (23%). By Kaplan–Meier analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) uncorrected adequate clinical and parasitological response (ACPR) ranged from 63.4% in Mkuzi to 85.9% in Mlimba, while PCR-corrected ACPR on day 28 varied from 97.6% in Ujiji to 100% in Mlimba. The drug was well tolerated; the commonly reported adverse events were cough, runny nose, and abdominal pain. No serious adverse event was reported.ConclusionThis study showed that AL had adequate efficacy and safety for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria. The high number of recurrent infections were mainly due to new infections, indicating the necessity of utilizing alternative artemisinin-based combinations, such as artesunate amodiaquine, which provide a significantly longer post-treatment prophylactic effect.

Growth and Fruit morphometric characteristics of local avocado germplasm (Persea americana Mill.) grown in northern Tanzania

Tanzania has a diverse agroecological area suitable for growing tropical fruits, including avocados. In Northern Tanzania, avocados have been growing under variable soil and altitudinal characteristics for over 100 years, allowing the naturalisation of this crop in this region. However, the region's avocado germplasm is uncharacterised, thus impeding the selection of elite genotypes for increased value and breeding programmes. This study examined the growth and fruit morphometric characteristics of avocado populations grown under variable soil pH and altitude in six districts in the Tanga, Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions. Variations in growth and fruit morphometric characteristics were compared using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Pearson product-moment correlations (r) were used to evaluate the relationship between studied growth and fruit morphometric traits. A linear mixed-effects model (LMM) was used to assess the influence of the soil pH, altitude, tree height, canopy diameter, and trunk diameter on fruit length, fruit diameter, pulp thickness, and seed diameter. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to depict the extent of the racial admixtures in the avocado germplasm in the Northern regions of Tanzania. The results revealed a significant variation in growth and fruit morphometric characteristics (p < 0.05). The Korogwe population had the highest tree height, while the Karatu had the lowest. Tree height was positively correlated with the trunk diameter (r = 0.63, p < 0.001. There was a positive correlation between fruit length and pulp thickness (r = 0.51, p < 0.001), fruit diameter and pulp thickness (r = 0.47, p < 0.001), and fruit length and fruit diameter (r = 0.36, p < 0.001). The fruit diameter was positively correlated with the seed diameter (r = 0.61, p < 0.001). There was a significant but weak association between fruit length and trunk diameter (−0.01), fruit length and canopy diameter (0.15), and between seed diameter and tree height (2.95e-2). These findings highlight the influence of individual tree genetic makeup on the variation in growth and fruit morphometric characteristics. The morphometric trait correlations may prove valuable in field measurements, especially when resources are limited. The study further indicates the presence of all avocado races within the local germplasm, highlighting its high diversity. Remarkably, the observed admixture of variant races implies gene flow among studied avocado populations, possibly facilitated by sharing seedlings among farmers or seed disposal through avocado fruit trading. Further study is needed, particularly in quantifying the above-ground biomass of local avocados in northern Tanzania, potentially contributing to carbon credit initiatives for fruit crops..

Determinants of viral load suppression failure among HIV adults on ARV attending health care facilities: a retrospective study in Tanga region, Tanzania

BackgroundAvailability and accessibility of Antiretroviral drugs (ARV’s) improve the lives of People living with HIV (PLHIV) by improving client’s immune system to overcome infections and prevent the development of AIDS and other HIV complications. Combination therapy, early initiation of ART, newer ART drugs, single dosage and drug affordability significantly contribute in the reduction of viral multiplication and suppression of HIV to undetectable plasma levels.MethodsA retrospective longitudinal study design study was conducted from 1st October, 2018 to 30th June 2022 in all supported HIV care and treatment health facilities in Tanga region which were supported by Amref Health Africa, Tanzania. The participants were HIV adult patients aged 15 years and above on ART and attended the clinic at least once after ART initiation. Viral load suppression levels are defined with viral load <1,000 HIV RNA copies/ml (viral load suppression). Cox proportional hazard regression models were employed to identify risk factors for virological failure. P values were two-sided, and we considered a P<0.05 to be statistically significant.ResultsFifty-nine thousand five hundred three adult clients >15 years whom were on ART were included in the analysis to determine the level of plasma Viral Load suppression after being on ART. Female 41,304 (69.4%) and male 18,199 (30.6%). Only four percent (2,290) were found to be unsuppressed i.e having plasma Viral Load >1,000cp/ml while 96% (57,213) were virally suppressed. Several factors were independently associated with virologic failure that included; age between 15 - <25 years (HR: 2.82, 95% CI 1.96 – 4.04), BMI <18.5 (HR: 1.69, 95% CI 1.23 – 2.30), advanced WHO stage IV (HR: 1.60, 95% CI 1.12 – 2.24), CD4 cell count <350 (HR: 2.61, 95% CI 2.12 – 3.23), poor adherence (HR: 1.98, 95% CI 1.80 – 2.18) and not using DTG based drug (HR: 11.8, 95% CI 9.74 – 14.3).ConclusionVirologic failure was observed in this study among clients with young age, advanced WHO stage IV, not using DTG based regimen, poor drug adherence and second line regime. To improve Viral Load Suppression among these clients; the existing HIV intervention strategies should be taken care by targeting the identified risk factors.

Supporting business functions influencing the formalization of charcoal business in Tanzania

Charcoal business, production, and sustainability are all under the control of government regulations. In Tanzania, the entire charcoal value chain employs approximately two million people. As a result, there are unreliable records for registered actors, and it is difficult to accurately quantify the annual amount of charcoal production and revenue collected by the Tanzanian government. Supporting functions are legally provided activities and services to support charcoal actors to formalize their business, including participation in the formulation of forest laws, market infrastructure development, training, access to information, and financial services. Supporting business functions available for charcoal actors such as producers, wholesalers, and retailers to facilitate the formalization of the charcoal business in Tanzania. This study was conducted to determine the supporting functions that are important to charcoal actors in Tanzania to formalize their activities. A total of 107 charcoal actors were administered a semi-structured questionnaire using the multiple sampling technique, which involved 31 wholesalers and 42 retailers trading in two of the largest markets, one in Dar es Salaam and the other in Zanzibar. Both markets depend on charcoal production in Handeni district, located in Tanga Region. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that formalizing the charcoal sector in Tanzania necessitates public-private partnerships (22.9%), financial services and legal environments (21.9%), and market infrastructures (15.6%). We concluded that the charcoal business needs the collaboration of the government with non-government organizations to share resources such as forest staff, vehicles, and incentives to motivate the participation of actors in the training of the legal procedure of charcoal business management, the formulation of registered charcoal groups or associations, and the establishment of charcoal selling centres. Moreover, the development of forest laws should be participatory to involve charcoal business stakeholders to have a reasonable cost of issuing licenses and other permits.

Trends of Plasmodium falciparum molecular markers associated with resistance to artemisinins and reduced susceptibility to lumefantrine in Mainland Tanzania from 2016 to 2021

BackgroundTherapeutic efficacy studies (TESs) and detection of molecular markers of drug resistance are recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) to monitor the efficacy of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT). This study assessed the trends of molecular markers of artemisinin resistance and/or reduced susceptibility to lumefantrine using samples collected in TES conducted in Mainland Tanzania from 2016 to 2021.MethodsA total of 2,015 samples were collected during TES of artemether-lumefantrine at eight sentinel sites (in Kigoma, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Pwani, Tabora, and Tanga regions) between 2016 and 2021. Photo-induced electron transfer polymerase chain reaction (PET-PCR) was used to confirm presence of malaria parasites before capillary sequencing, which targeted two genes: Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 propeller domain (k13) and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1).ResultsSequencing success was ≥ 87.8%, and 1,724/1,769 (97.5%) k13 wild-type samples were detected. Thirty-seven (2.1%) samples had synonymous mutations and only eight (0.4%) had non-synonymous mutations in the k13 gene; seven of these were not validated by the WHO as molecular markers of resistance. One sample from Morogoro in 2020 had a k13 R622I mutation, which is a validated marker of artemisinin partial resistance. For pfmdr1, all except two samples carried N86 (wild-type), while mutations at Y184F increased from 33.9% in 2016 to about 60.5% in 2021, and only four samples (0.2%) had D1246Y mutations. pfmdr1 haplotypes were reported in 1,711 samples, with 985 (57.6%) NYD, 720 (42.1%) NFD, and six (0.4%) carrying minor haplotypes (three with NYY, 0.2%; YFD in two, 0.1%; and NFY in one sample, 0.1%). Between 2016 and 2021, NYD decreased from 66.1% to 45.2%, while NFD increased from 38.5% to 54.7%.ConclusionThis is the first report of the R622I (k13 validated mutation) in Tanzania. N86 and D1246 were nearly fixed, while increases in Y184F mutations and NFD haplotype were observed between 2016 and 2021. Despite the reports of artemisinin partial resistance in Rwanda and Uganda, this study did not report any other validated mutations in these study sites in Tanzania apart from R622I suggesting that intensified surveillance is urgently needed to monitor trends of drug resistance markers and their impact on the performance of ACT.

Dairy input agri-entrepreneurs’ practices and their effect on inputs market participation by smallholder farmers in Tanzania

Dairy productivity per cow remains lower than the production ability amid increasing population. Among major reasons for this is the lower uptake of improved dairy inputs by smallholder dairy farmers. We characterized dairy input providers' business practices using Latent class analysis (LCA) and determined the effect of these business practices on the uptake of inputs by smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions using OLS. From LCA, Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) revealed a 3-class model as the most parsimonious and best fit (2153.071). The latent class (LC) membership of the input/service entrepreneurs for classes I, II, and III was 37.6% (35), 9.7% (9), and 52.7% (49), respectively. Using item response probabilities, we classified class I, II and III as ‘High business activities and business promotional practices’, ‘Low business activities, medium business promotional activities’, and ‘Medium business activities, Low business promotional activities’. Extension services provision was significant across all the classes with probability values greater than 0.5. The OLS model revealed that LC I and II were significant at 1% while LC III was significant at 5%. Education level and Moshi Rural District were negatively significant. Technical training of input entrepreneurs and capacity building on bundling relevant information alongside inputs is necessary for knowledge sharing with farmers. Networking, collaborations, and alliances among input/service entrepreneurs and between entrepreneurs and dairy farmers should be fostered for adequacy in technical information sharing and connecting farmers to other input suppliers. There is need for entrepreneurs to invest in rural areas and improve information and input access by the farmers. The study explored private dairy entrepreneurs as alternative extension services providers as a business strategy to enhance uptake of improved inputs by smallholder farmers. This study is relevant in making workable decisions towards implementing programmes geared towards increasing the improved input uptake in developing countries.

Assessing the influence of artisanal fishing on income and livelihood of the coastal communities in Tanzania: the case of Mkinga district, Tanga region

This study unveiled the influence of artisanal fishing on a coastal community's income and livelihood in the Mkinga District, Tanga region. Particularly, it seeks to: determine fish catch and gross margins across, investigate the influence of fish income on the households total incomes, and factors affecting income earnings in the marketing chain. The study used interviews and focus group discussions on obtaining primary data. Simultaneously, the internet, government documentation units at different levels were the sources of secondary data. It involved a total of 125 randomly selected respondents. Moreover, Gross Margin (GM), Marketing Margin (MG), and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics 25) were employed for analysis.Results show the socio-economic status of the respondents was generally poor. The majority of fishers have low education levels (44%), and they depend on fishing for livelihoods. Furthermore, compared to other groups computation of gross margins revealed that artisanal fishers earned the lowest (12.2%) with a gross margin of T.shs 443.6. Despite the lowest gross margin earning than other players, the fish income contributes highly (83.8%) to the total household incomes. Therefore, improvement in the fisheries sector results has a high impact on artisanal fishers' wellbeing. Moreover, factors affecting their income include lack of credit to purchase modern fishing and storage equipment, high cost of fishing gear, poor roads, low bargaining power, inadequate extension services, and lack of market information. Hence, the study recommends the government address observed constraining factors affecting artisanal fishers' incomes to increase their incomes

Proximate composition of Vitex doniana and Saba comorensis fruits

The wild fruits of Vitex doniana and Saba comorensis were randomly collected from Pwani and Tanga regions. Laboratory analysis was done using the methods described by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC (1995 and 2000). The amount of protein was 7.13 ± 0.04% and 21.73 ± 0.02% in V. doniana fruits while the fat contents were 2.4 ± 0.00% and 1.9 ± 0.10% in V. doniana fruits. The amount of fats in S. comorensis fruits ranged from 0.00 to 0.01% for the fruit samples from both Pwani and Tanga regions, however the differences was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The amounts of carbohydrates in V. doniana 23.98 ± 0.20% and in S. comorensis fruit samples (23.81 ± 0.38%) from Pwani Region were not statistically difference. The differences can be attributed to environmental and soil factors. S. comorensis fruit samples from Tanga had ash 4.20 ± 0.01% and moisture content 70.97 ± 0.04%. These values were higher than those observed for S. comorensis fruit samples from Pwani. The amount of ash is indicative of potential elements like sodium and potassium which are beneficial in human health for the development of bones. These fruits have significant amounts of carbohydrate and protein and hence healthy for consumption as part of human diet.

Uptake of Oral HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) and Associated Factors among Female Sex Workers in Tanga, Tanzania.

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) prevents HIV infection among female sex workers (FSW). WHO recommends the use of Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for use in oral PrEP regimens (TDF). Emtricitabine (FTC) 200 mg/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (TDF) 300 mg (Truvada) daily is the approved PrEP regimen in Tanzania. Evidence is limited on oral PrEP uptake and its associated factors in countries with a high burden of HIV, such as Tanzania. This study aimed to examine the uptake of oral PrEP and its associated factors among FSW in the Tanga region of Tanzania. This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 428 FSW. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews and analysed using STATA version 17 and RDSAT. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations of independent factors and PrEP uptake among study participants. About 55% of the recruited FSW used oral PrEP. FSW with three or more children were 2.41 times more likely to take oral PrEP (AOR 2.41, 95% CI: 1.08-4.25, p < 0.05). Moreover, those with a positive attitude were more likely to use oral PrEP (AOR 2.8, 95% CI: 1.88-4.17, p < 0.05). Poor belief was a barrier to PrEP use, and side effects of the drugs were a reason for the discontinuation of PrEP services. Most of the participants preferred PrEP services to be provided in the community. Oral PrEP uptake was 55%. Efforts to scale up PrEP for FSW should address misconceptions regarding PrEP, PrEP sensitization, and improving access through community-based intervention.