Cascade Reaction Research Articles

Rhodium(I)-Catalyzed Annulation of Bicyclo[1.1.0]butyl-Substituted Dihydroquinolines and Dihydropyridines.

Bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-containing compounds feature a unique chemical reactivity, trigger "strain-release" reaction cascades, and provide novel scaffolds with considerable utility in the drug discovery field. We report the synthesis of new bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-linked heterocycles by a nucleophilic addition of bicyclo[1.1.0]butyl anions to 8-isocyanatoquinoline, or, alternatively, iminium cations derived from quinolines and pyridines. The resulting bicyclo[1.1.0]butanes are converted with high regioselectivity to unprecedented bridged heterocycles in a rhodium(I)-catalyzed annulative rearrangement. The addition/rearrangement process tolerates a surprisingly large range of functional groups. Subsequent chemo- and stereoselective synthetic transformations of urea, alkene, cyclopropane, and aniline moieties of the 1-methylene-5-azacyclopropa[cd]indene scaffolds provide several additional new heterocyclic building blocks. X-ray structure-validated quantum mechanical DFT calculations of the reaction pathway indicate the intermediacy of rhodium carbenoid and metallocyclobutane species.

Progress on the Synthesis of the Aromathecin Family of Compounds: An Overview

We present a systematic review of the methods developed for the synthesis of the aromathecin family of compounds (benz[6,7]indolizino[1,2-b]quinolin-11(13H)-ones) and their derivatives. These methods can be broadly classified into four categories based on the construction of pentacyclic structures: Category 1: by constructing a pyridone moiety (D-ring) on the pyrroloquinoline ring (A/B/C-ring), Category 2: by constructing a pyridine moiety (B-ring) on the pyrroloisoquinolone ring (C/D/E-ring), Category 3: by constructing an indolizidinone moiety (C/D-ring) in a tandem reaction, and Category 4: by constructing a pyrrolidine moiety (C-ring) on the isoquinolone ring (D/E-ring).

Novel self‐doped Pd/Cu bimetals in CMC/PANI composites: Efficient heterogeneous catalyst for cooperative Sonogashira and Sonogashira‐cyclization tandem reactions

A new Pd/Cu bimetal catalyst supported on carboxymethylcellulose/polyaniline (CMC/PANI) composites (Pd/Cu@CMC/PANI) was fabricated to investigate the cooperative effect between Pd/Cu bimetals in Sonogashira reactions. This approach involves the self‐organization of aniline on CMC via H‐bond, enabling in situ oxidative polymerization using Pd(II) and Cu(II) ions as co‐oxidants. Subsequently, Pd and Cu are self‐deposited on the resulting CMC/PANI composites through the interaction of coordination and metathesis. The morphological and compositional analysis of the prepared catalyst was performed using various analytical tools such as ICP‐AES, FT‐IR, XPS, SEM, TEM, EDS, elemental mapping, and TGA. The Pd/Cu@CMC/PANI composite as a cooperative catalyst for the Sonogashira couplings exhibited high catalytic activity with relatively low Pd loading over its monometallic Pd counterpart, demonstrating the cooperative effect between Pd and Cu. Then, this bimetallic catalyst was successfully adapted for Sonogashira‐cyclization tandem reaction for the synthesis of benzofuran with excellent yields. Significantly, the Pd/Cu@CMC/PANI catalyst exhibited thermal stability under the reaction conditions and could be easily retrieved and reused repeatedly for five runs in the model reaction without significant discernible performance degradation.

2,3-Epoxyamide-alcohols in Domino Reactions: En Route to Molecular Diversity.

The synthesis of polycyclic γ- and δ-lactams bearing up to four contiguous fully controlled stereocenters is presented. For that purpose, we developed an original approach based on the use of 2,3-epoxyamides in domino reactions by taking advantage of the nucleophilic nitrogen atom and electrophilic epoxide. In reaction with enol ethers bearing gem bis-electrophiles on the double bond as Michael acceptors, four different reaction pathways were observed. They all started with a domino oxa-Michael/aza-Michael/epoxide opening sequence and depending on substrates engaged could be followed either by a lactonization or a hemiketalization/retro-aldol cascade. Thus, four original fully-substituted piperidine- or pyrrolidine-2-one scaffolds were selectively synthesized in good to high yields. Moreover, these polycyclic lactams were obtained in high stereo- and chemo-selectively highlighting the efficiency and molecular diversity offered by this new methodology that should offer various synthetic opportunities in the future.

Stereodivergent Construction of 1,5/1,7-Nonadjacent Tetrasubstituted Stereocenters Enabled by Pd/Cu-Cocatalyzed Asymmetric Heck Cascade Reaction.

The construction of chiral motifs containing nonadjacent stereocenters in an enantio- and diastereoselective manner has long been a challenging task in synthetic chemistry, especially with respect to their stereodivergent synthesis. Herein, we describe a protocol that enables the enantio- and diastereoselective construction of 1,5/1,7-nonadjacent tetrasubstituted stereocenters through a Pd/Cu-cocatalyzed Heck cascade reaction. Notably, a C=C bond relay strategy involving the shift of the π-allyl palladium intermediate was successfully applied in the asymmetric construction of 1,7-nonadjacent stereocenters. The current method allows for the efficient preparation of chiral molecules bearing two privileged scaffolds, oxindoles and non-natural α-amino acids, with good functional group tolerance. The full complement of the four stereoisomers of products bearing 1,5/1,7-nonadjacent stereocenters could be readily accessed by a simple combination of two chiral metal catalysts with different enantiomers.

Stereodivergent Construction of 1,5/1,7‐Nonadjacent Tetrasubstituted Stereocenters Enabled by Pd/Cu‐Cocatalyzed Asymmetric Heck Cascade Reaction

The construction of chiral motifs containing nonadjacent stereocenters in an enantio‐ and diastereoselective manner has long been a challenging task in synthetic chemistry, especially with respect to their stereodivergent synthesis. Herein, we describe a protocol that enables the enantio‐ and diastereoselective construction of 1,5/1,7‐nonadjacent tetrasubstituted stereocenters through a Pd/Cu‐cocatalyzed Heck cascade reaction. Notably, a C=C bond relay strategy involving the shift of the π‐allyl palladium intermediate was successfully applied in the asymmetric construction of 1,7‐nonadjacent stereocenters. The current method allows for the efficient preparation of chiral molecules bearing two privileged scaffolds, oxindoles and non‐natural α‐amino acids, with good functional group tolerance. The full complement of the four stereoisomers of products bearing 1,5/1,7‐nonadjacent stereocenters could be readily accessed by a simple combination of two chiral metal catalysts with different enantiomers.

Copper-Catalyzed Decarboxylation Cross-Coupling Cascade Reaction for Synthesis of Fused Dihydro-benzoxazinones.

A protocol for a tandem copper-catalyzed intermolecular decarboxylation cross-coupling cascade between o-bromobenzoic acids and proline or piperic acid has been disclosed. The developed protocol allows access to a variety of synthetically useful fused benzoxazinones scaffolds with high efficiency and good functional group compatibility. A mechanistically sequential approach for the decarboxylation and dehydration coupling process was presented.

Nerolidol Alleviates Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Diabetic Retinopathy Mediated by High Glucose Through Ameliorating Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway

Background Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the foremost microvascular problem that causes drastic visual impairment in diabetes patients. Hyperglycemia-triggered reaction cascade of inflammation and oxidative stress constitute the DR pathogenesis. The existing treatment options are not completely satisfactory. Materials and Methods We investigated the cell viability by 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, inflammatory mediators, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase, glutathione, and malonaldehyde (MDA) levels by ELISA and qRT-PCR assay, protein expression of Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) by western blotting assay were analyzed. Results According to our research, nerolidol (NRD) increases the proliferation and antioxidant activity of human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) by inducing Nrf2/HO-1 signaling, while attenuating MDA, an oxidative stress marker, LDH, and inflammatory mediators. These outcomes suggest that a substantial reaction of inflammation and oxidative stress injury happened in DR, which might be correlated to the instigation of the signaling Nrf2/HO-1. Conclusion NRD effectively suppresses oxidative stress and inflammation in HG-induced HRECs. The primary mechanism of NRD on DR may be linked to the activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and may give a useful medicine for DR treatment.

Rapid access to divergent fused polycycles via one-pot A3 coupling and intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction.

Divergent nitrogen-containing fused polycyclic ring systems are constructed from simple starting materials via a one-pot aldehyde-alkyne-amine (A3) coupling and intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction. This domino reaction directly furnishes linear 5/5/5 and 5/5/6, or nonlinear 5/5/6/5, polycyclic rings containing an oxa-bridged fused 5/5 bicycle and a 1,6-enyne substructure. One-step derivation of the oxa-bridged 5/5 bicycle leads to a polyfunctionalized 5/5 bicycle with tetrahydrofuran fused back-to-back to pyrroline or a 6/5 bicycle with the hexahydro-1H-isoindole structure, while cycloisomerizing the enyne substructure adds an extra fused 5-membered ring to afford functionalized linear 5/5/5/5 or 5/5/5/5/5 fused ring systems from selected substrates. In addition, the one-pot product can be designed so that the alkyne moiety is hydroalkoxylated to form an additional heterocyle in a linear 5/5/5/6 or nonlinear 5/5/6/5/5 ring system. This diversity-oriented synthetic approach thus allows rapid access to an under-explored structural space for discovery of new biological or non-biological activities or functions.

Switchable supramolecular helices for asymmetric stereodivergent catalysis

Despite recent developments on the design of dynamic catalysts, none of them have been exploited for the in-situ control of multiple stereogenic centers in a single molecular scaffold. We report herein that it is possible to obtain in majority any amongst the four possible stereoisomers of an amino alcohol by means of a switchable asymmetric catalyst built on supramolecular helices. Hydrogen-bonded assemblies between a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) achiral phosphine ligand coordinated to copper and a chiral BTA comonomer are engaged in a copper-hydride catalyzed hydrosilylation and hydroamination cascade process. The nature of the product stereoisomer is related to the handedness of the helices and can thus be directed in a predictable way by changing the nature of the major enantiomer of the BTA comonomer present in the assemblies. The strategy allows all stereoisomers to be obtained one-pot with similar selectivities by conducting the cascade reaction in a concomitant manner, i.e. without inverting the handedness of the helices, or sequentially, i.e. by switching the handedness of the supramolecular helices between the hydrosilylation and hydroamination steps. Supramolecular helical catalysts appear as a unique and versatile platform to control the configuration of molecules or polymers embedding several stereogenic centers.

Structural basis of the Meinwald rearrangement catalysed by styrene oxide isomerase.

Membrane-bound styrene oxide isomerase (SOI) catalyses the Meinwald rearrangement-a Lewis-acid-catalysed isomerization of an epoxide to a carbonyl compound-and has been used in single and cascade reactions. However, the structural information that explains its reaction mechanism has remained elusive. Here we determine cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of SOI bound to a single-domain antibody with and without the competitive inhibitor benzylamine, and elucidate the catalytic mechanism using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, functional assays, biophysical methods and docking experiments. We find ferric haem b bound at the subunit interface of the trimeric enzyme through H58, where Fe(III) acts as the Lewis acid by binding to the epoxide oxygen. Y103 and N64 and a hydrophobic pocket binding the oxygen of the epoxide and the aryl group, respectively, position substrates in a manner that explains the high regio-selectivity and stereo-specificity of SOI. Our findings can support extending the range of epoxide substrates and be used to potentially repurpose SOI for the catalysis of new-to-nature Fe-based chemical reactions.

Palladium-Catalyzed Three-Component Cascade Carbonylation Reaction to Construct Benzofuran Derivatives.

A novel three-component cyclization carbonylation reaction of iodoarene-tethered propargyl ethers with amine and CO is reported. This palladium-catalyzed cascade reaction undergoes a sequence of oxidative addition, unsaturated bond migration, carbonyl insertion, and nucleophilic attack to deliver the benzofuran skeleton. Both aromatic amines and aliphatic amines could proceed smoothly in this transformation under one atm of CO.

Mechanosynthesis of Pyrrole-2-carboxylic Acids via Copper-Catalyzed Spiroannulation/Ring-Opening Aromatization of 4-Arylidene Isoxazol-5-ones with Enamino Esters.

An efficient and practical tandem reaction of 4-arylidene isoxazol-5-ones with enamino esters catalyzed by an inexpensive copper salt has been established in a ball mill. This innovative approach yields a diverse array of structurally novel pyrrole-2-carboxylic acids, showing excellent tolerance toward different functional groups. By integrating spiroannulation and ring-opening aromatization processes, this protocol introduces a facile and cost-effective strategy for synthesizing highly functionalized pyrrole derivatives.

Phosphomethylpyrimidine Synthase (ThiC): Trapping of Five Intermediates Provides Mechanistic Insights on a Complex Radical Cascade Reaction in Thiamin Biosynthesis

Phosphomethylpyrimidine Synthase (ThiC): Trapping of Five Intermediates Provides Mechanistic Insights on a Complex Radical Cascade Reaction in Thiamin Biosynthesis

Merging of Palladium and Organocatalysis Enabled Asymmetric Decarboxylative (2+1) Cycloadditions toward Cyclopropanes.

A cascade reaction enabling enantio- and diastereoselective construction of strained cyclopropanes is described. This asymmetric (2+1) annulation process uses vinyl methylene carbonate and 2-cyanoacrylate as reaction partners in the presence of Pd(PPh3)4 as a precatalyst and an enantioenriched phosphoramidite ligand featuring a morpholine functionality. Mechanistic investigations unveil that the PPh3 derived from the Pd(PPh3)4 and the morpholine-containing phosphoramidite work as cooperative phosphorus and Brønsted base catalysts to promote the reaction.

Palladium‐catalyzed domino reaction for the synthesis of benzo‐cyclohepta‐quinolinone analogues from Cedrus deodara oil

First‐time vinyl bromide‐substituted benzocycloheptene compound has been explored as a precursor for the synthesis of benzo‐cyclohepta‐quinolinone (BCQ) analogues following a domino reaction. The vinyl bromide‐substituted benzocycloheptene was synthesized from himachalenes, extracted from Cedrus deodara oil. The reaction proceeds through C‐C bond formation followed by palladium catalyzed C‐N cross‐coupling and dehydrogenative aromatization in a consecutive and atom‐economic approach for BCQ analogues synthesis. Moreover, the present methodology is applicable for various substituted β‐enaminones with good to moderate yield.

Enzymatic Production of Glycerol from Glycolaldehyde and Formaldehyde

Glycerol is a simple and important polyol in both biological and industrial field. To produce glycerol in an eco‐friendly manner, we established a one‐pot cascade reaction by fructose‐6‐phosphate aldolase (FSA) and aldehyde reductase (ALR) from formaldehyde (FALD) and its dimerized form glycolaldehyde (GALD) via L‐glyceraldehyde. For this, we characterized two FSAs at various conditions. Among them, FSA from Gilliamella apicola (GaFSA) has shown the higher L‐glyceraldehyde production activity in the phosphate buffer than the well‐known FSA from Escherichia coli (EcFSA) by more than 2 times. We also characterized two ALRs (xylose reductase from Candida tenuis; CtXR, the annotated DL‐glyceraldehyde reductase from Hypocrea jecorina; HjGLD) that specifically reduce L‐glyceraldehyde into glycerol. Bioproduction of glycerol from FALD and GALD was performed using GaFSA and CtXR, which produced ~8.8 mM glycerol from 25 mM of FALD and GALD (conversion yield of ~35%). This suggested that a simple process would help in designing a green production of glycerol from a wasteful one‐carbon chemicals.

Universal CRISPR-Cas12a and Toehold RNA Cascade Reaction on Paper Substrate for Visual Salmonella Genome Detection.

Salmonella, the most prevalent food-borne pathogen, poses significant medical and economic threats. Swift and accurate on-site identification and serotyping of Salmonella is crucial to curb its spread and contamination. Here, a synthetic biology cascade reaction is presented on a paper substrate using CRISPR-Cas12a and recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), enabling the programming of a standard toehold RNA switch for a genome of choice. This approach employs just one toehold RNA switch design to differentiate between two different Salmonella serotypes, i.e., S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, without the need for reengineering the toehold RNA switch. The sensor exhibits high sensitivity, capable of visually detecting as few as 100 copies of the whole genome from a model Salmonella pathogen on a paper substrate. Furthermore, this robust assay is successfully applied to detect whole genomes in contaminated milk and lettuce samples, demonstrating its potential in real sample analysis. Due to its versatility and practical features, genomes from different organisms can be detected by merely changing a single RNA element in this universal cell-free cascade reaction.

Endogenous mRNA-driven "one-to-more" signal amplification of DNA probe for intracellular miR155 sensing.

The detection of specific intracellular microRNAs could be potentially helpful in understanding the underlying mechanisms of cancer metastasis and invasion. MiRNAs are usually present in lower expression levels, especially in early stage of cancer. Here, we proposed a "one-to-more" amplification strategy for miRNA imaging, by virtue of DNA strand displacements with dual-amplification. This approach involves leveraging high-abundance endogenous mRNA as fuel strand to drive cascade reactions between DNA strands for amplification, enabling the monitoring of low abundance intracellular miRNA155.Notably, in comparison to the traditional "one-to-one" signal triggering mode, our "one-to-more" amplification strategy led to a remarkable 11.8-fold increase in fluorescence signal. Our approach not only demonstrates a high sensitivity and specificity in detecting miR155, but also allows for discrimination of miR155 expression levels in different cell lines. With the advantages of intracellular signal amplification and reduced background signal, this approach holds substantial potential in the early diagnosis of cancer.

Copper-bonded polyoxomolybdates-based framework as a heterogeneous catalyst for the cascade click reaction and bromination

The selective conversion of alkynes into bromotriazoles over a single-component catalyst is highly desirable but presents significant challenges. In this study, we developed a robust copper-bonded polyoxomolybdates-based framework [Cu2(Mo6O20)]·2H2O (CPF-1), and it integrates the catalytic ability of Cu(I) site with the multielectron-transfer ability of polyoxometalates. As a result, CPF-1 exhibits favorable bifunctional catalytic activity for click chemistry and achieves 99% yield in the conversion of corresponding products to bromotriazoles. To our knowledge, CPF-1 represents the first heterogeneous catalyst that significantly enhances cascade reaction with excellent efficiency and sustainable recyclability. Additionally, the possible cascade catalytic mechanisms of these two reactions are also proposed.