Tall Oil Research Articles

Study of Heavy Oil In-situ Combustion with Copper Biocatalysts: Kinetics and Thermodynamic Aspects of High-Temperature Oxidation Reactions

In-situ combustion is considered an efficient thermally enhanced oil recovery method. However, the combustion front stabilization remains a challenge for the scientific community. The present study examines the efficacy of copper tall oil (Cu-TO) and copper sunflower oil (Cu-SFO) on heavy oil high-temperature oxidation reactions, which are believed to solve this challenge. We applied non-isothermal differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses combined with an isoconversional kinetic approach in order to calculate kinetic parameters, thermodynamic functions, and the effective rate constant of these reactions. The obtained results demonstrated that both catalysts are able to reduce the activation energies and shift oxidation regions to lower temperatures, with Cu-SFO showing superior performance. Kinetic predictions further supported these findings and revealed that the selected catalysts contributed significantly to decreasing oxidation times across all conversion ranges. Additionally, thermodynamic analyses indicated that Cu-SFO facilitated a more ordered and energetically favorable oxidation process, as demonstrated by increasingly negative entropy values and consistently lower Gibbs free energy. The research highlights the Cu-SFO catalyst exceptional ability to accelerate the transition from low-temperature to high-temperature oxidation while maintaining high catalytic activity. Taken together all these results, this research work contributes to provide comprehensive insights from the kinetic and thermodynamic analysis that reveal unique catalytic effects and reaction mechanisms, presenting an approach to stabilize combustion front and improve heavy oil recovery efficiency, addressing a critical challenge in the field of in-situ combustion.

Sustainability of Asphalt Mixtures Containing 50% RAP and Recycling Agents

The substitution of virgin asphalt binder with reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) has environmental and economic merits, however, cracking susceptibility arises due to the aged asphalt binder within RAP. The objectives of this study are to (1) enhance the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures containing 50% RAP utilizing recycling agents (RAs) derived from six petroleum-based and bio-based materials, (2) conduct an environmental impact assessment (represented by global warming potential “GWP”) for high-RAP mixtures including RAs, and (3) estimate the cost effectiveness of including high-RAP content in asphalt mixtures. Based on the RAP asphalt binder performance grade (PG), base asphalt binder PG, and RAP content, the RA contents were determined to achieve a target asphalt binder of PG 76-22. A control mixture was benchmarked for comparison, specified for high-traffic volume roads, and contained PG 76-22 polymer-modified asphalt binder. The engineering performance of studied asphalt mixtures was evaluated using the Hamburg wheel-tracking (HWT), semi-circular bend, Illinois flexibility index, Ideal cracking tolerance, and thermal stress-restrained specimen tensile strength tests. It was found that petroleum-derived aromatic oil, soy-based oil, and tall oil fatty acid-based RAs demonstrated a successful restoration of aged RAP asphalt binder without compromising the permanent deformation resistance. The 50% RAP mixtures emitted less GWP by 41% and 42.9% using petroleum- and bio-oil RAs, respectively, and achieved a 31% cost reduction compared to the control mixtures.

A rosin-functionalized plastic surface inactivates African swine fever virus.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes a severe hemorrhagic disease in pigs, leading to up to 100% case fatality. The virus May persist on solid surfaces for long periods; thus, fomites, such as contaminated clothing, footwear, farming tools, equipment, and transport vehicles, May contribute to the indirect transmission of the virus. Here, a plastic surface functionalized with tall oil rosin was tested against ASFV. The rosin-functionalized plastic reduced ASFV infectious virus titers by 1.3 log10 after 60 min of contact time and killed all detectable viruses after 120 min, leading to a ~ 6 log10 reduction. In contrast, the infectious virus titer of ASFV in contact with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic reduced <1 log10 after 120 min. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed significant morphological changes in the virus after 2 h of contact with the rosin-functionalized plastic surface, but no changes were observed with the LDPE plastic. The use of antiviral plastic in the farming sector could reduce the spread of ASFV through fomites and could thus be part of an integrated program to control ASFV.

PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE CORROSION INHIBITORS OF STEEL FROM DIAMINES AND TALL OIL FATTY ACIDS

Substituted imidazolines are one of the most common and effective surface-acting metal corrosion inhibitors. The main tasks of today are to reduce their cost and increase their hydrolytic stability, which is achieved through a targeted choice of the nature and structure of long-chain carboxylic acids in the synthesis of imidazolines. Another way to reduce the cost of producing corrosion inhibitors based on aliphatic ethylenediamines is to use imidazoline precursors – amidoamines and ammonium salts - to protect against corrosion, the production of which is much less energy-consuming.The synthesis of active substances of carbon steel corrosion inhibitors in the reaction of diamines with fatty acids of tall oil was carried out. It is shown that depending on the temperature of the reaction and the introduction of the catalyst – polycationite CU-2-8 - it is possible to selectively obtain derivatives of imidazolines, amidoamines, and ammonium salts, which are capable of inhibiting carbon dioxide corrosion of steel in mineralized water at 60 °C with a degree of protection from 85 % to 91 %. It is noted that the protective effect of amidoamines and ammonium salts is practically not inferior to the action of imidazolines.

Study on the synergistic regeneration effect of tall oil and crumb rubber on aged SBS modified asphalt

The thermo-oxidative aging of Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) modified asphalt (SMA) includes the aging of base asphalt and the degradation of SBS modifiers. With the aim of restoring the performance of base asphalt and making up for the loss of performance advantage caused by the degradation of SBS modifier, tall oil and crumb rubber (CR) were applied to synergistically regenerate aged SBS modified asphalt (ASMA). The effect of the particle size and content of CR, as well as the degree of microwave-activated CR on the properties and storage stability of the reclaimed ASMA were discussed in details. The regeneration mechanism of ASMA by CR was studied from the surface properties, morphology and thermal behavior, respectively. The results show that tall oil can restore the low-temperature properties of ASMA significantly, but it seriously detrimental to the high-temperature properties. CR play the role of secondary modification on the reclaimed ASMA, which can improve the high-temperature properties of the reclaimed ASMA at the cost of low-temperature properties and storage stability, and the modification effect is related to the particle size and content of CR. Microwave activation of CR can improve the storage stability of the reclaimed ASMA with CR, which is because that microwave activation modification disrupts the cross-linking structure of the CR and improves the surface properties, which are conducive to the diffusion migration of molecular chains and multiphase material exchange between the CR and the reclaimed ASMA. Thus, the interaction between the multiphases can be enhanced in the reclaimed ASMA with CR. This work provides an effective regeneration method for aged SBS modified asphalt, and also achieves the reuse of non-renewable resources.

Kinetic investigation of aschalcha heavy oil oxidation in the presence of cobalt biocatalysts during in-situ combustion

The catalytic effect of cobalt tall oil and cobalt sunflower oil catalysts on the oxidation kinetics of heavy crude oil was investigated in this study. Comprehensive kinetic analyses, employing differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and kinetic modeling techniques, revealed that the presence of these catalysts significantly influenced the oxidation behavior of heavy oil. The catalysts exhibited pronounced shifts in the DSC and TG curves towards lower temperatures, indicating facilitated initiation of oxidation reactions at lower onset temperatures. Quantitative kinetic parameters, including activation energies and frequency factors, were determined using the Friedman and Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose analyses. The cobalt tall oil catalyst demonstrated superior performance, effectively lowering the activation energy barrier and increasing oxidation rates, particularly at higher conversion degrees. Catalyst characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, revealed the formation of highly crystalline cobalt oxide nanoparticles with optimal dispersion and size distribution, as well as the presence of favorable functional groups for surface interactions. The results elucidated the role of these catalysts in facilitating the oxidation process through the provision of active sites, altered reaction pathways, favorable steric environments, and efficient oxygen activation capabilities. These findings contribute to the development of efficient catalytic systems for heavy oil upgrading processes and offer insights for further optimization of catalyst properties to achieve desired oxidation kinetics behavior.

3D simulation in a fixed bed coupled pervaporation reactor for biodiesel production

In this study, a solid acid catalyst SO42−/TiO2/ZSM-5 (STZ) was prepared. Biodiesel was synthesized from tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) by the ethanol esterification. The fixed bed and pervaporation (PV) coupling increased the esterification conversion of TOFA and ethanol by about 16 %. The spherical STZ catalyst’s appearance, composition, and catalytic activity were assessed through TGA, XRD, SEM, BET, FTIR, NH3-TPD and XPS analyses. The reaction parameters of ethanol/TOFA molar ratio (10:1–20:1), reaction temperature (75–85 ℃), catalyst dosage (6–12 g) and flow rate (0.3–0.9 mL/min) were optimized by the response surface method (RSM). Under RSM optimization, the TOFA esterification reaction achieved a conversion rate of 99.56 ± 0.23 %. After five cycles of esterification, TOFA conversion remained above 87 %. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was established to predict the esterification reaction behavior in the reactor, and the TOFA conversion rate was found to be close to the experimental results through systematic simulation, by reaction kinetics equation, continuity equation, Navier-Stokes equation, and Brinkman equation. In addition, the TOFA biodiesel prepared by this study complies with EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards.

Development of biobased, sustainable and environmentally friendly glycerol ester rosins for the production of thermoplastic road marking paint

AbstractIn recent years, natural rosin derivatives have gained significant importance in the production of sustainable bio‐based materials, including thermoplastic road marking paint (TRMP). This study evaluates the use of sustainable natural glycerol ester rosins as bio‐based binders in TRMP formulations, specifically focusing on pine, wood, and tall oil rosins. Various analytical techniques, such as FT‐IR, TGA, MALDI‐TOF‐MS and GPC‐HPLC, were utilized to analyze both unmodified and glycerol ester rosins. Standard tests, including acid number (mg KOH/g) ASTM D 465‐05 and softening point (°C) ASTM E 28‐99, were also conducted on the samples. The optimum synthesis conditions for glycerol ester rosins (GER) were determined as follows: a rosin/glycerol molar ratio of 2.54, catalyst/rosin weight ratio of 0.5%, and antioxidant/rosin weight ratio of 1.0%. GPC‐HPLC analysis revealed average esterification reaction yields of over 90.85%. Furthermore, TRMPs underwent various tests, including gloss factor (β), chromaticity coordinates (x, y), UVB aging, and softening point (°C). The results demonstrated that GERs exhibited superior performance, especially in the UVB aging test, with all TRMPs classified as UV1 type. These findings highlight the promising potential of GERs derived from different types of rosins in producing sustainable, environmentally friendly, and bio‐based next‐generation TRMPs.

Imidazoline As a Volatile Corrosion Inhibitor for Mitigation of Top- and Bottom-of-the-Line CO2 Corrosion in Carbon Steel Pipelines.

A fatty acid imidazoline-based inhibitor was synthesized via a facile solvent-free synthesis method between tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) and diethylenetriamine (DETA) under atmospheric conditions with a short reaction time. The as-synthesized imidazoline (S-Imd) acted as an effective inhibitor for reducing or preventing corrosion of carbon steel pipelines at both bottom of the line (BOL) and top of the line (TOL) positions under simulated conditions of a gas pipeline in a CO2-saturated environment. The inhibition efficacy was examined by both weight loss and electrochemical measurements, such as the electrochemical impedance spectrum (EIS), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), and linear polarization resistance (LPR). The results revealed that the S-Imd, 2-(8-heptadecenyl)-2-imidazoline-1-ethanamin, at 300 ppm exhibited a superior inhibition efficiency of up to 91.6 and 89.9% for BOL and TOL corrosion tests, respectively. The surface morphology of the carbon steel test specimens was also examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX), and contact angle analysis. It was found that the as-synthesized S-Imd acted as a mixed-type inhibitor that exhibited a decreased surface roughness and oxide layer on carbon steel surfaces. However, the water contact angle was found to increase, implying enhanced hydrophobicity of the surface. Adsorption of the imidazoline molecules on carbon steel surfaces followed the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. The present work provides very promising results in the synthesis and utilization of the studied imidazoline as a volatile corrosion inhibitor (VCI), especially for carbon steel pipelines in petroleum industries.

Влияние состава гидроксамовых кислот на показатели флотации перовскита.

On a sample of perovskite-bearing ore of the testing of reagents-collectors from the class of hydroxamic acids, differing in the structure of the hydrocarbon radical, was carried out. The reagents based on octanoic acid and acids of vegetable oils — coconut and tall oil — were considered. It is shown that in the alkaline pH range the rough flotation is more active, and a considerable amount of gangue minerals is transferred to the froth product. Strong attachment of the collector on all minerals determines low efficiency of re-cleaning operations in alkaline conditions. The optimum pH of flotation is pH = 6.2–6.5. Increase in the length of hydrocarbon radical above 10 carbon atoms leads to a significant decrease in the selectivity of the collector action. Reagents based on coconut and tallic acids actively float both perovskite and gangue minerals. Of the reagents considered, octylhydroxamic acid is characterized by the most optimal flotation properties and provides obtaining perovskite concentrate with TiO2 ~49–50 %.

Esterification of crude tall oil catalyzed by Beta zeolite

In softwood Kraft pulping process, fatty/resin acids (extractives) react with the white liquor and are saponified, producing Tall Oil Soap (TOS). TOS can be converted back to the respective fatty/resin acids, generating Crude Tall Oil (CTO). In this work, TOS was converted into CTO according to standard methods, producing residual lignin and an aqueous phase as co-products. Then, CTO was esterified in the presence of Beta zeolites with different Si/Al ratios and particle sizes in rotary Teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave. Compared to esterification of oleic and palmitic acids, esterification of CTO is a slow process, with conversions limited to no more than 83 % after 6 h at 393 K. Smaller particles (0.26 μm) and lower Si/Al ratio (15) showed greater conversion. This may be associated with a higher strength of Brønsted acid sites (due to lower Si/Al ratio) but also with an improved diffusion of reactants/products within zeolite micro- and mesopores (due to the relatively smaller particle size). The esterification product was mainly composed of esters of fatty acids, such as dimethyl 4-isopropyloctanedioate, methyl elaidate and methyl palmitate. Esters of resin acids (methyl abietate and dehydroabietate), phthalic acids, as well as paraffins are also present, but probably in lower concentrations.

Conversion of Contaminated Post-Consumer Polyethylene Terephthalate into a Thermoset Alkyd Coating Using Biosourced Monomers.

The synthesis of a high-performance oxidative cross-linked thermoset alkyd coating is described that utilizes a novel recycling strategy from contaminated postconsumer waste polyethylene terephthalate (wPET). A single-stage "depolymerization-repolymerization" process has been developed that allows the exploitation of a waste stream from a commercial PET recycling process with 95% efficiency, which, when copolymerized with glycerol and tall oil fatty acid, delivers a sustainable fatty acid-functional polyester suitable for use in thermoset alkyd coatings. Physical drying challenges have been tackled via the development of a convergent polymer formulation strategy from a single source of wPET and the formulation of the resulting fatty acid-functional polymers with commercial alkyd driers, delivering a thermoset alkyd coating suitable for industrial applications.

Enhancing the vaporization and secondary atomization of two-liquid droplets for fire suppression

Large-scale fires of various origins are most often contained and suppressed using fine water spray systems with a droplet size of 50–300 μm. Enhancing the extinguishing performance of these systems is an urgent task as this will reduce the amount of irreversible damage fires cause to forests, buildings, and compartments. Finer droplet size of the extinguishing liquid sprayed directly in the combustion zone prevents droplet entrainment, thus increasing the firefighting efficiency and reducing the extinguishing liquid consumption. However, too little is still known about alternative ways to intensify the vaporization and secondary atomization of fine water sprays in order to disrupt the chemical reactions responsible for combustion. Experimental findings on enhancing the secondary atomization and phase change of sprayed water with added vegetable oils for fire suppression are presented. Experiments on water droplets with sunflower, rapeseed, and tall oils were performed in the ethanol burner flame zone. The radii of two-liquid droplets were 0.85 ± 0.05 mm. The concentration of explosion-triggering additives to water was constant at 10 ± 2 vol.% in all the experiments. The addition of 10 vol.% rapeseed oil to water allows one to reduce the local gas temperature around the droplet up to 250 K in case of micro-explosion of an isolated droplet and up to 450 K in case of micro-explosion of a group of droplets. The experimental findings were processed to obtain approximations of the relationships established in the experiments: micro-explosion delay times, droplet lifetimes, and normalized evaporation surface area after breakup. A physical model is presented describing the processes involved in the experiments. An additional series of experiments involved suppressing a laboratory-scale wood crib fire using water and water/rapeseed oil emulsion to compare the fire suppression times and the extinguishing liquid consumption in both cases. The suppression times and the extinguishing liquid consumption were on average 15% lower when using a water/rapeseed oil emulsion compared with pure water. Practical recommendations are given on how to provide the intense disruption of extinguishing liquids with added vegetable oils to accelerate fire suppression. Two-liquid droplets exploding in the flame zone are established as a possible alternative to water capsules, extinguishing missiles, and cryogenic technologies for suppressing large-scale fires.

Rigid Polyurethane Foams' Development and Optimization from Polyols Based on Depolymerized Suberin and Tall Oil Fatty Acids.

The utilization of polyols derived from renewable sources presents an opportunity to enhance the sustainability of rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams, thereby contributing to the advancement of a circular bioeconomy. This study explores the development of PUR rigid foams exclusively using polyols sourced from second-generation renewable biomass feedstocks, specifically depolymerized birch bark suberin (suberinic acids) and tall oil fatty acids. The polyols achieved a total renewable material content as high as 74%, with a suberinic acid content of 37%. Response surface modeling was employed to determine the optimal bio-polyol, blowing agents, and catalyst content, hence, optimizing the bio-based foam formulations. In addition, response surface modeling was applied to rigid PUR foam formulations based on commercially available petroleum-based polyols for comparison. The results, including apparent density (~40-44 kg/m3), closed cell content (~95%), compression strength (>0.2 MPa, parallel to the foaming direction), and thermal conductivity (~0.019 W/(m·K)), demonstrated that the suberinic acids-based rigid PUR foam exhibited competitive qualities in comparison to petroleum-based polyols. Remarkably, the bio-based rigid PUR foams comprised up to 29% renewable materials. These findings highlight the potential of suberinic acid-tall oil polyols as effective candidates for developing rigid PUR foams, offering promising solutions for sustainable insulation applications.

Fast-curing bio-based thermoset foams produced via the Michael 1,4-addition using fatty acid-based acetoacetate and acrylate

This study introduces an approach for creating bio-based polymer foams exploiting the Michael reaction that could be utilized as thermal insulation. The thermoset foams were developed using a second-generation bio-based feedstock – tall oil. Tall oil is a by-product of wood pulping in paper manufacturing and mainly comprises unsaturated fatty acids like oleic and linoleic acid. The study explores the use of tall oil-based acetoacetates (Michael donor) combined with various acrylates (Michael acceptor), petrochemical-based (bisphenol-A ethoxylate diacrylate, trimethylolpropane triacrylate, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate), and bio-based (epoxidized soybean oil acrylate, epoxidized tall oil free fatty acids-based acrylate), to develop polymer foams that meet today's sustainability requirements. The developed polymer foams underwent extensive characterization. Matrix curing parameters were assessed by measuring changes in dielectric polarization during curing. Foaming parameters, including start and rise times, were precisely measured. The chemical composition of the foams was analysed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Their thermal, thermo-mechanical, and mechanical properties were evaluated through thermal gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and compression tests. Additionally, the content of closed-cell and the coefficient of thermal conductivity were determined, further characterizing the foams as potential thermal insulation materials. Foams from bio-based donors with petrochemical-based acceptors exhibited a range of enhanced properties. They not only achieved high glass transition temperatures (up to 85 °C by DSC and up to 108 °C by DMA) but also displayed a spectrum of mechanical strengths (compression strength ranging from moderate to as high as ∼ 0.40 MPa) and good thermal isolation properties (thermal conductivity coefficient ∼ 31mW/(m·K)). Bio-based foams, derived from renewable resources, were characterized by properties fitting for flexible foam applications, such as low glass transition temperatures (down to −9.7 °C by DSC and down to 9.8 °C by DMA), reduced compression strength (approximately 0.011 MPa), and increased thermal conductivity (up to 46.7mW/(m·K)), indicating their potential utility in applications where flexibility is a key requirement.

A Review on the Impact of Bio-Additives on Tribological Behavior of Diesel Fuels

Automobile engines require lubrication to lessen the impact of friction due to the high levels of wear and frictional heat generated by the sliding parts. Wear and friction will cause engine parts to endure for less time, be less reliable, and require more maintenance. Diesel fuel can potentially be replaced with biodiesel among other fuels. Diesel engines have a serious problem with equipment that is lubricated by the fuel itself. This study’s goal is to assess the influence of bio-additives on the diesel fuel tribological behavior and energy balance during the car’s idle running, acceleration, constant speed, and braking. Lubricity issues with reformulated diesel and lubricity test procedures are explained. The relationship between tribology and bio-additives is also briefly illustrated. According to the literature, adding bio-additives to fuel boosts its lubricity. Biodiesel has long been considered an additive with excellent lubricant properties. Even in small amounts, adding biodiesel to diesel fuel can increase its lubricity without the need for conventional lubricity additives. This is especially true for diesel fuel with ultralow sulfur. Diesel fuel characteristics determine the precise blending percentage needed to provide the proper lubricity of maximum 520 μm testing wear scars with a high-frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR), although 2% biodiesel nearly invariably imparts adequate lubricity to biodiesel blends. Tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) was one of the bio-additives investigated by HFRR. When the additive concentration was raised from 0 to 500 g/g, the wear scar diameter (WSD) of nonadditive diesel fuel was lowered by 60.3%, from 630 to 250 μm, and the coefficient of friction (COF) was lowered by 95.7%, from 0.47 to 0.02.

Effect of dietary tall oil fatty acids and hydrolysed yeast in SNP2-positive and SNP2-negative piglets challenged with F4 enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

Reduction of post-weaning diarrhoea caused by ETEC is a principal objective in pig farming in terms of welfare benefits. This study determined the effects of genetic susceptibility and dietary strategies targeting inflammation and fimbriae adherence on F4-ETEC shedding and diarrhoea in weaned piglets in an experimental challenge model. A DNA marker test targeting single nucleotide polymorphism 2 (SNP2) identified piglets as heterozygous (SNP2+, susceptible) or homozygous (SNP2-, resistant) to developing F4ac-ETEC diarrhoea. A total of 50 piglets, 25 SNP2+ and 25 SNP2-, were weaned at 30 days of age and equally distributed to different treatments (n = 10): Positive control (PC): piglets fed with a negative control diet and provided with colistin via drinking water; Negative control (NC): piglets fed with a negative control diet; Tall oil fatty acids (TOFA): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.0 g TOFA/kg feed; Yeast hydrolysate (YH): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.5 g YH/kg feed derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae; and Combination (COM): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.0 g TOFA and 1.5 g YH/kg feed. On day 10 post-weaning, all piglets were infected with F4-ETEC by oral administration. Piglets fed with PC, TOFA, YH or COM had a lower faecal shedding of F4-ETEC than NC piglets (P < 0.001), which was also shorter in duration for PC and TOFA piglets than for NC piglets (P < 0.001). Piglets in PC, TOFA, YH and COM had a shorter diarrhoea duration versus NC when classified as SNP2+ (P = 0.02). Furthermore, PC, TOFA and YH piglets grew more than NC and COM piglets in the initial post-inoculation period (P < 0.001). In addition, the level of faecal F4-ETEC shedding and the percentage of pigs that developed F4-ETEC diarrhoea (72 vs. 32%, P < 0.01) following infection were higher, and the duration of F4-ETEC diarrhoea longer (2.6 vs. 0.6 days, P < 0.001), in SNP2+ piglets than in SNP2- piglets, and led to reduced growth performance (P = 0.03). In conclusion, piglets fed with TOFA, YH or their combination, irrespective of their SNP2 status, are more resilient to F4-ETEC infection. Moreover, SNP2+ piglets show a higher level of F4-ETEC shedding and diarrhoea prevalence than SNP2- piglets, confirming an association between SNP2 and F4ac-ETEC susceptibility.

Physicochemical Rejuvenation of Aged Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene-Modified Bitumen through Joint Use of Polyurethane Prepolymer and Tall Oil for Maintaining High-Temperature Property

Physicochemical Rejuvenation of Aged Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene-Modified Bitumen through Joint Use of Polyurethane Prepolymer and Tall Oil for Maintaining High-Temperature Property

Esters of Inulin and Tall Oil Fatty Acids

The possibility of obtaining polysaccharide esters based on large-scale products of plant origin: inulin and tall oil fatty acids, was studied. Carbohydrate esters of the biopolymer inulin and higher unsaturated acids were synthesized by acylation with acid chlorides under various conditions: in a water–chloroform mixture in the presence of sodium hydroxide and sodium salts of tall oil fatty acids, as well as in a pyridine–1,4-dioxane mixture. The yield of polysaccharide esters was 67–82%, the maximum yield was detected during the acylation of inulin in the pyridine–1,4-dioxane system

Esterification of tall oil fatty acid catalyzed by Zr4+-CER in fixed bed membrane reactor

In this study, Zr4+-CER was used as a solid acid catalyst to catalyze the esterification reaction. The esterification of tall oil fatty acids (TOFA) with ethanol dehydration was studied by fixed-bed coupled pervaporation (PV). The Zr4+-CER catalyst was characterized in detail by Py-IR, NH3-TPD, BET, IEC, ICP-OES, SEM, and FTIR. The effects of ethanol/oil molar ratio, catalytic bed height, reaction temperature and feed rate on TOFA conversion were investigated. The esterification reaction conditions were optimized by orthogonal test, and the optimal conditions were ethanol/oil molar ratio 15:1, catalytic bed height 120 mm, reaction temperature 80 °C, and feed rate 0.3 ml/min. The TOFA conversion rate was 99.51 %. After six esterification cycles, the TOFA conversion of the catalyst reached 90.03 %, indicating that the catalyst had high stability. The esterification process using Zr4+-CER as the catalyst follows the second-order kinetic model, with an activation energy of 39.54 kJ/mol. Furthermore, the economic analysis of biodiesel production indicates that the Zr4+-CER catalyst has the potential to decrease production expenses, presenting an encouraging prospect for future biodiesel industrialization.