Tactical Situational Awareness Research Articles

Shoot or Don't Shoot? Tactical Gaze Control and Visual Attention Training Improves Police Cadets' Decision-Making Performance in Live-Fire Scenarios.

Police officers often encounter potentially dangerous situations in which they strongly rely on their ability to identify threats quickly and react accordingly. Previous studies have shown that practical experience and targeted training significantly improve threat detection time and decision-making performance in law enforcement situations. We applied 90-min traditional firearms training as a control condition (35 participants) and a specifically developed intervention training (25 participants) to police cadets. The intervention training contained theoretical and practical training on tactical gaze control, situational awareness, and visual attention, while the control training focused on precision and speed. In a pre- and posttest, we measured decision-making performance as well as (tactical) response preparation and execution to evaluate the training. Concerning cognitive performance training (i.e., decision-making), the number of correct decisions increased from pre- to posttest. In shoot scenarios, correct decisions improved significantly more in the intervention group than in the control group. In don’t-shoot scenarios, there were no considerable differences. Concerning the training of response preparation and execution in shoot scenarios, the intervention group’s response time (time until participants first shot at an armed attacker), but not hit time, decreased significantly from pre- to posttest. The control group was significantly faster than the intervention group, with their response and hit time remaining constant across pre- and posttest. Concerning the training of tactical action control, the intervention group performed significantly better than the control group. Moreover, the intervention group improved the tactical handling of muzzle position significantly. The results indicate that a single 90-min session of targeted gaze control and visual attention training improves decision-making performance, response time, and tactical handling of muzzle position in shoot scenarios. However, these faster response times do not necessarily translate to faster hit times – presumably due to the motor complexity of hitting an armed attacker with live ammunition. We conclude that theory-based training on tactical gaze control and visual attention has a higher impact on police officers’ decision-making performance than traditional firearms training. Therefore, we recommend law enforcement agencies include perception-based shoot/don’t-shoot exercises in training and regular tests for officers’ annual firearm requalification.

Basic Cognitive Abilities Relevant to Male Adolescents' Soccer Performance.

While there is a theoretical and empirical consensus that specific cognitive abilities gained through deliberate sports practice influence sports performance, it is less clear whether basic cognitive abilities that are not specifically related to sports practice are relevant to sports performance. Accordingly, this research examined the roles of basic concentration and visuospatial ability in adolescent soccer performance. Participants were 46 adolescent male soccer players (Mage = 16.15 years, standard deviation = 1.13) who averaged 7.21 years (standard deviation = 2.2) of prior soccer training. We measured participant's basic cognitive abilities with the Corsi block and the concentration grid tasks, and we measured their soccer performance through five soccer skills. Concentration had no predictive role in elements of soccer performance, but visuospatial ability was significantly related to tactical abilities, technical skills, mental toughness, and situational awareness and thus, to overall soccer performance. These findings provided support for the importance of visuospatial ability but not concentration (as measured by the concentration grid) in young males' soccer performance.

Cognitive Task Analysis Methods in Envisioned Tactical Command Decision Making

The battlespace is a volatile and complex environment in which tactical commanders face cognitively challenging responsibilities, compounded with the increased complexity of emerging cyber warfare. It is critical that tactical commanders gain adequate situation awareness for effective decision making to achieve mission success. While current tools enable distribution of large quantities and types of information, they do not adequately support the underlying cognitive work and information needs of tactical commanders. We performed a domain analysis using Cognitive Task Analysis methods, developing a prototypical operational scenario representative of current and envisioned environments, centered on a cyber-attack. Using this analysis, we identified cognitive and information requirements for information displays that support effective tactical decision making. Tactical commanders need to understand dynamic situations in the field, understand the viable courses of actions, know how their mission fits into the larger mission, and communicate with their company subordinates and higher echelons of command.

Height Measurement in Seamless Indoor/Outdoor Infrastructure-Free Navigation

Using the barometer for height estimation often requires the use of external reference to correct biases in measurement. These biases are often caused by the change of the ambient pressure environment. The barometric height estimation is especially challenging in tactical and rescue applications where high temperatures or sudden large pressure shocks can change the pressure rapidly. We assess the suitability of barometers for infrastructure-free navigation in tactical applications. First, this paper investigates the effect of transition in seamless indoor/outdoor navigation. Second, we measure the effects of pressure shocks, caused by explosions or firearms, on low-cost and lightweight micro-electromechanical barometers to ensure that the sensors are capable of operating under these conditions. Finally, we investigate the use of sonar measurement to estimate the vertical speed as an alternative to the reference barometer for infrastructure-free navigation. The fusion of barometer and sonar achieved on average 0.46-m root-mean-square error (RMSE) while simple barometric height estimation had a RMSE of 0.65 m. The fusion method had no errors over 1.5 m during the test. This accuracy is generally sufficient to find the correct floor level which is crucial for tactical situational awareness. The goal of this paper is to develop the methods for seamless indoor/outdoor navigation, and therefore the most important result of this paper is that the error caused when transitioning between outdoor and indoor environments is visibly reduced.

Error Modelling for Multi-Sensor Measurements in Infrastructure-Free Indoor Navigation.

The long-term objective of our research is to develop a method for infrastructure-free simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and context recognition for tactical situational awareness. Localization will be realized by propagating motion measurements obtained using a monocular camera, a foot-mounted Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), sonar, and a barometer. Due to the size and weight requirements set by tactical applications, Micro-Electro-Mechanical (MEMS) sensors will be used. However, MEMS sensors suffer from biases and drift errors that may substantially decrease the position accuracy. Therefore, sophisticated error modelling and implementation of integration algorithms are key for providing a viable result. Algorithms used for multi-sensor fusion have traditionally been different versions of Kalman filters. However, Kalman filters are based on the assumptions that the state propagation and measurement models are linear with additive Gaussian noise. Neither of the assumptions is correct for tactical applications, especially for dismounted soldiers, or rescue personnel. Therefore, error modelling and implementation of advanced fusion algorithms are essential for providing a viable result. Our approach is to use particle filtering (PF), which is a sophisticated option for integrating measurements emerging from pedestrian motion having non-Gaussian error characteristics. This paper discusses the statistical modelling of the measurement errors from inertial sensors and vision based heading and translation measurements to include the correct error probability density functions (pdf) in the particle filter implementation. Then, model fitting is used to verify the pdfs of the measurement errors. Based on the deduced error models of the measurements, particle filtering method is developed to fuse all this information, where the weights of each particle are computed based on the specific models derived. The performance of the developed method is tested via two experiments, one at a university’s premises and another in realistic tactical conditions. The results show significant improvement on the horizontal localization when the measurement errors are carefully modelled and their inclusion into the particle filtering implementation correctly realized.

Development and Implementation of Micro Autonomous Systems and Technologies (MAST) Interactive Reconfigurable Matrix of Alternatives (M-IRMA) for Concept Selection

Army Research Laboratory sponsored Micro Autonomous Systems and Technologies (MAST) project seeks to collaboratively develop new technologies to enhance warfighter's small unit's tactical situation awareness in complex terrain. The development consists of multifunctional, autonomous and collaborative microsystem swarms. To analyze the large concept space, a specialized tool, MAST Interactive Reconfigurable Matrix of Alternatives (M-IRMA) has been developed. A convoy assistance mission scenario based on the movie’Black Hawk Down’ is analyzed and evaluated using the tool. Results include the selection of families of concepts, among the defined alternatives, that accomplish the mission optimally. The system components reflect fundamental requirements of the mission, namely high endurance, adaptability, path planning, and communication ability. Moreover, a database-driven web-based implementation of M-IRMA enables online definition of problems and conceptualization of solutions. WM-IRMA (Web-based MAST Interactive Reconfigurable Matrix of Alternatives) provides a dynamic online platform for MAST researchers to remotely access, view, modify, and evaluate alternatives simultaneously.

A metric and framework for measuring information utility in mission-oriented networks

In recent years, utility-based resource allocation for wired and wireless networks has been extensively studied. A key goal of utility-based analysis is to provide evaluation criteria for an efficient network operation based on subjective user assessments such as usefulness and value of data. Yet, the vast majority of prior work has focused on topics like mathematical functions (concave or otherwise) of network metrics, information entropy, or user-perceived quality (e.g., MOS) for interpreting utility. In this work, 1 1 Prepared through the PILSNER program. The US Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation thereon. we propose an alternative mission-oriented metric for information utility, called the Mean Cognition Score (MCS), that is based on how useful the data is for a mission, in terms of attributes such as accuracy and timeliness with which a task is completed using data. Like previous work, our definition supports the design and engineering of networks by mapping utility metrics to typical network design metrics (bandwidth, delay, loss, etc.). Unlike previous work, it also permits simple solutions to important questions such as the joint utility or usefulness of different data streams, the impact on the utility of one data stream by another, and cross-sensory utility of multimedia streams (e.g., the impact of a side audio channel on an image processing task, or a side audio channel on a video processing task). We present a novel experimental approach to the quantification of MCS, and provide empirical results for the four most important types of data in tactical networks, viz., audio, video, image and situational awareness data. The results quantify the effects of information encoding and the impairments incurred during transmission through imperfect networks on the information’s usefulness to end-users in terms of being able to complete tasks correctly and on time. Furthermore, we develop functional models based on the empirical results for calculating the MCS-based information utility of audio and video streams both independently and jointly, and discuss the applications of such models.

Work Domain Analysis for the Interface Design of a Sonobuoy System

Modern sonar systems have greatly improved their sensor technology and processing techniques, but little effort has been put into display design for sonar data. The enormous amount of acoustic data presented by the traditional frequency versus time display can be overwhelming for a sonar operator to monitor and analyze. In addition to their normal sonar tasks, sonobuoy system operators manage the deployment of sonobuoys and ensure proper functioning of deployed sonobuoys. This paper describes a work domain analysis carried out as part of an interface design project targeting the sonobuoy system on board a maritime patrol aircraft. The domain of sonobuoy management and the domain of tactical situation awareness were modeled separately to address the two different aspects of the operator's work. Information requirements were drawn from the two models. Some of these requirements have significant implications for new design ideas that were previously overlooked in displays for sonobuoy systems.

Heuristic Automation for Decluttering Tactical Displays

Tactical displays can quickly become cluttered with large numbers of symbols that can compromise effective monitoring. Here, we studied how heuristic automation can aid users by intelligently "decluttering" the display. In a realistic simulated naval air defense task, 27 experienced U.S. Navy users monitored a cluttered airspace and executed defensive responses against significant threats. An algorithm continuously evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat and decluttered the less threatening ones by dimming their symbols. Users appropriately distrusted and spot-checked the automation's assessments, and decluttering had very little effect on which aircraft were judged as significantly threatening. Nonetheless, decluttering improved the timeliness of responses to threatening aircraft by 25% as compared with a baseline display with no decluttering; it was especially beneficial for threats in more peripheral locations, and 25 of 27 participants preferred decluttering. Heuristic automation, when properly designed to guide users' attention by decluttering less important objects, may prove valuable in many cluttered monitoring situations, including air traffic management, crisis team management, and tactical situation awareness in general.

Testbed for Evaluating Tactical Situation Awareness and Decision Making

The next generation cruise missile, the Tactical Tomahawk, improves upon current versions by its ability to be retargeted in flight against targets of opportunity. We have developed a testbed for evaluating alternative display concepts and decision support features on the effect of an operator's ability to maintain situation awareness and make appropriate time-critical decisions. This user interface design was based on an analysis of critical operator tasks, and the concepts of representation aiding and limited workspace management. The testbed was developed with Macromedia Director, allowing it to be run cross-platform (Windows, Macintosh, and the Internet). One set of studies has been conducted so far with this system, to compare alternative display features on the effect of subject situation awareness and decision making.

An Exploratory Investigation of Relationships between Situation Awareness and Performance in an Attack Helicopter Domain

As part of a research program studying display concepts to increase tactical situation awareness (SA) in the attack helicopter domain we investigated the relationship between SA and performance. In order to test this relationship empirically, we developed two measures of SA that could be assessed independently of performance, a detailed measure and a high-level measure. In three phases of a simulated attack helicopter mission the detailed measure, but not the high-level measure, was significantly correlated with a measure of performance. The results offer conditional empirical support for a relationship between SA and performance.

An instrumentation solution for reducing spatial disorientation mishaps.

This article explores some of the engineering approaches to dealing with spatial disorientation (SD) and their drawbacks, looks at nature's approach to spatial orientation, and then presents the Tactical Situation Awareness System (TSAS) as a solution to the SD problem (note: TSAS is a trademark for the service and product of the Naval Aerospace Biomedical Research Laboratory, Pensacola, Florida). The TSAS is an array of tactile stimulators arranged in columns and rows on a garment that a pilot wears on the torso and limbs. This array provides intuitive orientation information to aircrew and operators of remote platforms and is more compatible with a pilot's natural sensory system.

Improvement of tactical situation awareness with colour-coded horizontal-situation displays in combat aircraft

In the multi-role combat aircraft Gripen, the monochrome head-down displays in the cockpit are to be upgraded in colour. In the present study, the effects of colour-coded displays on visual search and situation awareness (SA) were studied in a real-time simulation of an air-to-air mission with test pilots as subjects. Gripen's monochrome colour scheme was compared to two chromatic (dichrome, polychrome) colour schemes. A 3×2×2 factorial within subjects design was used; the three colour schemes each with two different background conditions (simple and complex) and two different symbol configurations. The pilot had two tasks during the simulation: (1) to track a manoeuvring aircraft within specified limits by using the head-up display (HUD), and (2) to detect the appearance of a priority target on the head-down horizontal-situation display (HSD). Deviations in flight path angle and reaction times for target detection were recorded. After the test runs, the pilot answered questions and ranked the colour schemes in different respects. The pilot also rated them for SA using a subjective rating technique on cognitive compatibility (CC-SART). The results show that colour is advantageous in comparison to the monochrome display: The ranks on situation awareness and preference ratings were higher for the chromatic schemes, and with the complex background, the reaction times were significantly lower for the polychrome colour code. In summary, the results indicate that colour can improve tactical SA in combat aircraft.

Information complexity-mental workload and performance in combat aircraft

The purpose of the present study was to analyse the effects of information complexity on Pilot Mental WorkLoad (PMWL) and Pilot Performance (PP), and to analyse the structure of PMWL. Eighteen pilots performed 72 simulated low level-high speed emissions. The complexity of the Head Down Display (HDD) information varied as a function of the tactical situation. Flight data were recorded continuously. The pilots' eye movements were video taped and psychophysiological activation data, Heart Rate (HR), were obtained. The pilots rated PMWL according to the psychological content of three scales (Bedford Rating Scale, Subjective Workload Assessment Technique, NASA-Task Load indeX) and answered a questionnaire tapping aspects of performance, information load, motivation and mood. It was found that even a moderate complexity of information interfered with the flight task. Altitude and variation in altitude were increased and corrections of altitude errors were delayed, when complexity increased. Changes in information load reached its maximum influence on flight performance (r = 0.60, p < 0.001) after a time delay of 20 to 40 seconds. Performance of the flight task correlated positively (r = 0.59, p < 0.001) with the performance of the information handling task (Tactical Situation Awareness, TSA). Durations and frequencies of eye fixations Head Up (HU) versus Head Down (HD) changed as a function of information load. A structural equation model implied that PMWL was affected by mission complexity and that PMWL affected objective and subjective aspects of flight performance and information handling. Heart rate (sortie means) correlated positively with PMWL (r = 0.34, p< 0.05) and perceived complexity of mission (r = 0.37, p < 0.01). Heart rate (running means) covaried with variations in information complexity for those pilots who performed well. From spectral analyses of cardiac interval. times it was found that the amplitude of the 0.10 Hz component tended to decrease during high as compared to low levels of information load.

Impact of Naturalistic Decision Support on Tactical Situation Awareness

A prototype decision support system (DSS) was developed to enhance Navy tactical decision making based on naturalistic decision processes. Displays were developed to support critical decision making tasks through recognition-primed and explanation-based reasoning processes and cognitive analysis of the decision making problems faced by Navy tactical officers in a shipboard Combat Information Center. Baseline testing in high intensity, ambiguous scenarios indicated that experienced decision makers were not well served by current systems, and their performance revealed periodic loss of situation awareness. A study is described with eight, expert Navy tactical decision making teams that used either their current system alone or in conjunction with the prototype DSS. When the teams had the prototype DSS available, we observed significantly fewer communications to clarify the tactical situation, significantly more critical contacts identified early in the scenario, and a significantly greater number of defensive actions taken against imminent threats. These findings suggest that the prototype DSS enhanced the commanders' awareness of the tactical situation, which in turn contributed to greater confidence, lower workload, and more effective performance.