System Of Systems Engineering Research Articles

Principles for the design of system of systems exemplified using modularisation

AbstractIn the context of system of systems (SoS) engineering, the incorporation of design principles is critical to guide the engineering process. This paper presents a systematic literature review to synthesize a list of principles tailored for SoS. 26 principles were identified as generic principles and 39 were mapped to the specific challenges in SoS engineering. Through an evaluation using the principle of modularisation in the design of a charging infrastructure, the study offers insights into the real-world effectiveness of these principles, showing their relevance in SoS engineering tasks.

Engineering Sustainable System of Systems: A Holistic Approach for a Brighter Future

AbstractThis article highlights the importance of System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) in achieving sustainability goals. System of Systems (SoS), as systems with significant and enduring environmental impact, play a critical role in overall sustainability efforts. The article first introduces the foundations of SoSE and Design for Sustainability. It then identifies eight essential capabilities for developing sustainable system of systems, emphasizing a holistic approach that considers processes, methods, technologies, people, and the environment. Finally, it outlines the challenges of such approach and indicates future work. Despite the difficulties associated with adopting this approach, the paper highlights the profound significance and implications that complex systems have on the environment in which they operate.

A methodology for developing SoS architectures using SysML model federation

AbstractAn essential role of systems engineering is to aid in overcoming complexity during development. As system complexity increases, a greater number of organizations are being asked to contribute architecture/design content for systems development. An essential challenge to overcome is how to ensure digital continuity in connecting system models to form systems of systems (SoS) models. Leveraging recent developments in digital engineering (DE) and model‐based systems engineering (MBSE) this paper presents a SysML model federation methodology enabling multiple collaborating organizations to contribute system models and form a descriptive SoS architecture model. Systems engineers applying this methodology are able to reuse constituent system model content to describe the larger SoS behavior and structure while promoting reusability and commonality and are therefore better able to ensure correctness and consistency across development. First, a background through the review of SoS engineering (SoSE) and DE/MBSE literature is provided. Then an MBSE process along with specific methods tailoring the use of SysML within the Cameo Enterprise Architecture tool is presented. This work builds upon a previously published Systems Architecture Model (SAM) development method and is designed to permit style diversity across peer constituent models and ensure that every piece of data has an authoritative source of truth (ASOT) within the federation. This paper then presents the application of this methodology to the Ranger Lunar Rover system by making use of its openly published SysML model. Finally, the benefits and challenges of this methodology are discussed prior to drawing closing conclusions and identifying future areas of research.

Modeling Bitcoin plus Ethereum as an Open System of Systems of Public Blockchains to Improve Their Resilience against Intentional Risk

In this article, we model the two most market-capitalised public, open and permissionless blockchain implementations, Bitcoin (BTC) and Ethereum (ETH), as a System of Systems (SoS) of public blockchains. We study the concepts of blockchain, BTC, ETH, complex networks, SoS Engineering and intentional risk. We analyse BTC and ETH from an open SoS perspective through the main properties that seminal System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) references propose. This article demonstrates that these public blockchain implementations create networks that grow in complexity and connect with each other. We propose a methodology based on a complexity management lever such as SoSE to better understand public blockchains such as BTC and ETH and manage their evolution. Our ultimate objective is to improve the resilience of public blockchains against intentional risk: a key requirement for their mass adoption. We conclude with specific measures, based on this novel systems engineering approach, to effectively improve the resilience against intentional risk of the open SoS of public blockchains, composed of a non-inflationary money system, “sound money”, such as BTC, and of a world financial computer system, “a financial conduit”, such as ETH. The goal of this paper is to formulate a SoS that transfers digital value and aspires to position itself as a distributed alternative to the fiat currency-based financial system.

A New Pattern Framework and Innovative Practices in the Smart Court System-of-Systems Engineering Project of China

Developing large-scale complex information systems, such as the Smart Court system-of-systems (SoSs) of China, is a worldwide engineering challenge. This paper, from a methodological perspective, aims to expound the theoretical construction and practical progress of Smart Court system-of-systems engineering (SoSE) of China. The concept and key task requirements of SoSE are explored, technical difficulties faced by the Smart Court SoSE are analyzed, and a “two-track parallel, six-ring linkage” pattern framework is proposed for the progressive collaboration SoSE of large-scale autonomous information systems. Based on the theories including a universal information model, information metric system, and dynamic configurations of information systems, a key evaluation indicator system for an information SoSs is proposed. To satisfy the SoSE design requirements, an overall design method based on information relationships and its enabling tool are proposed, and a reference model of the Smart Court SoSs is designed to provide a top-level reference for the system development and integration of the Smart Court. Moreover, the development and collaborative integration of the autonomous and backbone systems in the Smart Court SoSE are presented in a comprehensive manner. The nationwide application and promotion of the Smart Court SoSs support the upgrade and transformation of the conventional judicial operation pattern of people’s courts in China. Through continuous analyses of the quality and effectiveness of the Smart Court based on the key evaluation indicators, targeted improvement can be conducted to further enhance the SoSs capabilities, thereby contributing to the progress of judicial civilization in the information age.

Ecology‐inspired resilient and affordable system of systems using degree of system order

AbstractAn optimal trade‐off between resilience (the ability to survive and recover from disruptions) and affordability is highly desirable in System of Systems (SoS) architectures. However, it is difficult to design SoS architectures for these goals as existing resilience evaluation methods require detailed disruption models that are not readily available in the early stages of design. Biological ecosystems (nature's resilient SoS) achieve these goals through a unique balance of efficient and redundant interactions in their architectures—measured using the metric Degree of System Order (DoSO). This research tests if this ecological architecting principle and the DoSO metric are useful for designing resilient and affordable SoS. The resilience versus affordability tradespace of a large number of notional SoS architectures is investigated using the DoSO metric. Results indicate that the majority of Pareto optimal SoS architectures, under various disruptions, lie in the ecologically‐identified favorable DoSO range. Further, SoS architectures within this DoSO range were found to have better resilience and affordability attributes, in general, than the architectures outside it. DoSO evaluation does not require knowledge of disruption scenarios and is the first network architecture metric to consider resilience versus affordability trade‐offs, making it a valuable addition to the SoS engineering toolset.

Design process for system of systems reconfigurations

AbstractSystems of systems (SoSs) constitute a particular class of systems, whose constituents are themselves systems in their own right. Such systems present architectures that dynamically change in a way that is not necessarily intended at the time of design. We target a kind of SoS that is subject to evolutionary development and propose a reconfiguration design process that guides the architect in charge of SoS engineering by indicating the tasks that must be accomplished to develop a reconfiguration for evolutionary development. Finally, our process is applied to design a reconfiguration in the context of a realistic case study inspired by the French emergency services .

Advances in systems of systems engineering foundations and methodologies

ABSTRACT Using an extensive review of Systems of Systems Engineering (SoSE) that was published in 2012 as the baseline, this paper reviews the subsequent trends in the development of SoSE theoretical fundamentals and methodologies. The paper shows that many significant gaps identified within the baseline have been addressed. Considerable advances to the underpinning framework of ideas include: application of systems philosophy to support enhanced reasoning about SoSE as a discipline, improved structuring of SoSE principles and classification, and standardisation of SoSE terminology. Maturation of SoSE practice is also reported, with the presentation of a catalogue of SoSE methodologies covering pre-existing, adapted, and new approaches. Of significance, is the growing consensus that SoSE approaches must be carefully selected and tailored to suit the situation. Research has also enabled progress on structured approaches to SoSE methodology design. The paper concludes with a discussion on how these trends could inform Australian Defence practices.

A Capability Engineering Lifecycle Framework Based on Insights from Australian Defence

AbstractThe Australian Department of Defence is actively pursuing initiatives to improve the integration and interoperability of the defence force and this paper reports on research findings produced in support of this effort. The paper opens with a description of the Australian Defence capability development context together with recent initiatives to provide greater military capability for the available budget. Within this context, the problem the researchers set out to address is how best to co‐ordinate the ongoing force Integration and Interoperability (I2) activities that evolve and deliver defence capabilities so that these capabilities can be integrated together at short notice and deployed. System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) approaches have been found to be effective for this class of problem and the paper provides a short review of the most promising candidates. The methodology needs analysis that follows concludes that a range of different SoS approaches will be needed to cover the different stages of the capability lifecycle and the paper then proceeds to describe an initial framework that provides a new way of looking at the defence Integrated Capability Realisation (ICR) SoSE challenge across two dimensions. The first dimension is the time horizon of the planned capability increment: from the present to around four years; four to eight years; eight to twelve years; and longer than twelve years. The second dimension covers the types of activities that are traditionally performed to evolve defence forces such as future force planning, program co‐ordination and planning, project capability definition, acquisition, and force generation. The paper describes how this framework provides a simple method to identify which SoSE approaches are the most applicable to given ICR subtasks and also proposes an overall approach to self‐organise overall Defence ICR efforts

The Accomplishments of Mo Jamshidi: Impacting the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society

Prof. Mo Jamshidi is a globally renowned leader not only in the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society (SMCS) but also the engineering world. He conceptualized and developed the system of systems engineering (SoSE). This scheme is now widely acknowledged and extends to the fields of engineering, economics, science, social issues, and medicine. I have known him since 2000, and it is my great honor and privilege to describe the impact he has had, as well as the accomplishments he has achieved, in his role in the IEEE and the international engineering field.

Battlefield Mapping by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Swarm: Applied Systems Engineering Processes and Architectural Considerations From System of Systems

For many years, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Swarm (UAVs) have been implemented as stand-alone systems for various applications. Advances in technology necessitate the need for the complexity of the systems to rise to a level higher than ever. The capability needs today require the use of multiple systems to act together to accomplish a common goal that is unachievable with a single system. The use of multiple UAVs in an autonomous, or semi-autonomous, nature to accomplish this higher-level goal is known as a UAV Swarm system of systems. In designing a system with the complexity of a UAV Swarm there are many aspects that must be taken into careful consideration. This article will identify the SoS principles and considerations for developing and deploying a UAV Swarm for Battlefield Mapping using System Modeling Language. The design of the developed battlefield SoS will utilize standard Systems Engineering processes, adapted Systems Engineering processes for Systems of Systems, and architecture representation models. Each of these key utilities will be analyzed to provide guidance and considerations for SoS Engineering of the UAV Swarm.

S.O.B (Save Our Budget) - A Simulation-Based Method for Prediction of Acquisition Costs of Constituents of a System-of-Systems

Software economics, acquisition, and pricing are important con- cerns for Systems-of-Systems (SoS). SoS are alliances of independent software- intensive systems combined to offer holistic functionalities as a result of the con- stituents interoperability. SoS engineering involves separately acquiring con- stituents and combining them to form the SoS. Despite the existence of cost pre- diction techniques, predicting SoS acquisition costs at design-time should also include the analysis of different suppliers of constituents, their respective prices and quality. However, known methods cover only two out of these three param- eters. The main contribution of this article is to present the S.O.B. (Save Our Budget) method, a novel simulation-based method to predict, at design-time, the acquisition cost of constituents, while still considering quality attributes and different suppliers. Results of a case study in the Smart Building domain re- vealed that S.O.B. method supports a precise prediction of acquisition cost of constituents to build a SoS for that domain. Furthermore, it also contributes to estimate the cost based on a pre-established quality attribute (functional suit- ability), as well as to support the selection of coalition that exhibits better results through the analysis of cost-benefit ratio.

A Governance Perspective for System-of-Systems

The operating landscape of 21st century systems is characteristically ambiguous, emergent, and uncertain. These characteristics affect the capacity and performance of engineered systems/enterprises. In response, there are increasing calls for multidisciplinary approaches capable of confronting increasingly ambiguous, emergent, and uncertain systems. System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) is an example of such an approach. A key aspect of SoSE is the coordination and the integration of systems to enable ‘system-of-systems’ capabilities greater than the sum of the capabilities of the constituent systems. However, there is a lack of qualitative studies exploring how coordination and integration are achieved. The objective of this research is to revisit SoSE utility as a potential multidisciplinary approach and to suggest ‘governance’ as the basis for enabling ‘system-of-systems’ coordination and integration. In this case, ‘governance’ is concerned with direction, oversight, and accountability of ‘system-of-systems.’ ‘Complex System Governance’ is a new and novel basis for improving ‘system-of-system’ performance through purposeful design, execution, and evolution of essential metasystem functions.’

System of Systems (SoS) Analysis of the Problem of UAS Integration into Controlled Airspace

AbstractUnmanned aircraft system (UAS) operations are growing in numbers, type of applications, technical complexity and regulatory challenges. National aviation regulatory authorities are engaged in coming up with regulatory and policy framework for seamless integration and operation of UAS in civil airspace. Integration of UAS into civil airspace is a complex and challenging System of Systems (SoS) engineering problem involving multiple stakeholders, complex airborne and ground systems / subsystems, processes, regulatory frameworks, etc. Recent research and developments in SoS engineering provide tools for representing, modelling and analysis of complex SoSs which would help in taking design decisions and risk mitigation. In this paper, the problem of integrating UAS into controlled civil airspace is analyzed from the SoS engineering stand point. The key system elements involved in the problem and their relationship and interactions are modelled as a SoS. The relationship between the technical challenges associated with the key SoS elements and the standard SoS dimensional properties is established. An approach for developing an architecture model of the proposed SoS is discussed.

An SoS Framework for Improved Collaborative Decision Making

Efficient team decision making has become vital in organizations, dominated by the complex system of systems (SoS). Inefficient decisions can result in significant extra cost and reduction in the overall performance within the organizations. Therefore, SoS success requires an adaptable design that can proactively evaluate and modify decisions in a dynamic process. Improved systems engineering (SE) processes and tools are needed during the systems’ development lifecycle to make decisions, and rapidly evaluate and assess multiple design alternatives to effectively select the architectural design strategies that yield the highest mission performance. This research aims to increase the knowledge of SoS engineering by developing an agent-based model of team collaboration in an operational SoS. The model evaluates and selects the decision(s) for SoS comprised of collaborative teams that result in higher mission performance. The proposed agent-based model was applied to test the team decision-making improvements within the SoS structure of the air transportation domain. The experimental results indicated significant improvements in decision coordination, decision workload, and overall mission performance in the air transportation domain. This research contributes to the agent-based modeling of the SoS teams and can assist with evaluating team decisions and improving decision making as an essential element in the field of SE.

Conceptualization of a System-of-Systems in the Defense Domain: An Experience Report in the Brazilian Scenario

National sovereignty and protection require a diversity of interdependent systems that jointly provide a large infrastructure for the national security, making possible a continuous monitoring and control. These systems assure the confidential information exchange while providing more complex functionalities when working together and forming alliances known as Systems-of-Systems (SoS). This paper reports an experience in the Brazilian defense scenario, externalizing the acquired knowledge in the form of lessons learned during the conduction of a real, strategic project called SisGAAz (Blue Amazon Management System), which has its main goal to develop the Brazilian navy management SoS. In particular, we focus on reporting our experience in the architectural design of this SoS as a quality driver in our project. We also raise challenges that were overcome, and also others that must still be faced. The results communicated herein contribute to deliver a panorama of the Brazilian state of the practice about SoS engineering. Such results are important, as they report the current situation and gaps to be bridged by both academics and practitioners, not only in Brazil but also worldwide, especially in those developing countries that are also living and implementing such technological revolution.

Requirements Based Design of Environmental System of Systems: Development and Application of a Nexus Design Framework

Social, technological, and environmental systems have become increasingly interconnected. Integrated problems arising between embedded water, energy, and food systems, require political and strategic cooperation between the actors involved at multiple governance levels. A holistic design approach is needed to guide the inherent decision-making processes. In this article, we developed a normative decision-making framework based on System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) and demonstrated how it can help to foster the cross-sectoral design of solutions to these interlinked water, energy, and food issues. The actors involved in our case study demonstrated a strong interest in collaborating across sectors and participating in the transition to cross-sectoral and sustainable resource management practices. However, experts from science and practice face a high degree of uncertainty when they design solutions to cope with the existing regional problems. As almost all regions of the world are highly integrated in national and global markets, future research might consider conducting larger research projects that also link the design approaches to inter-regional, national, and international levels. Our methodological approach illustrates how such a project could be structured on a regional level and identifies the processes that are important to consider.

Learning the Evolution Regularities for BigService-Oriented Online Reliability Prediction

Service computing is an emerging technology in System of Systems Engineering (SoS Engineering or SoSE), which regards a System as a Service, and aims at constructing a robust and value-added complex system by outsourcing external component systems through service composition. The burgeoning Big Service computing just covers the significant challenges in constructing and maintaining a stable service-oriented SoS. A service-oriented SoS runs under a volatile and uncertain environment. As a step toward big service, service fault tolerance (FT) can guarantee the run-time quality of a service-oriented SoS. To successfully deploy FT in an SoS, online reliability time series prediction, which aims at predicting the reliability in near future for a service-oriented SoS arises as a grand challenge in SoS research. In particular, we need to tackle a number of big data related issues given the large and fast increasing size of the historical data that will be used for prediction purpose. The decision-making of prediction solution space be more complex. To provide highly accurate prediction results, we tackle the prediction challenges by identifying the evolution regularities of component systems’ running states via different machine learning models. We present in this paper the motifs-based Dynamic Bayesian Networks (or m_DBNs) to perform one-step-ahead online reliability time series prediction. We also propose a multi-steps trajectory DBNs (or multi_DBNs) to further improve the accuracy of future reliability prediction. Finally, a Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)-based prediction approach is developed to deal with the big data challenges. Extensive experiments conducted on real-world Web services demonstrate that our models outperform other well-known approaches consistently.

A framework with revised rough-DEMATEL to capture and evaluate requirements for smart industrial product-service system of systems

Smart industrial product-service system of systems (SiP-S3) is a new extension of industrial PSS via smart technology and SoS (system of systems) engineering. A framework with revised rough-DEMATEL method is proposed to capture and evaluate requirements for SiP-S3. From the various interactions in value stream mapping of SiP-S3, business, functional and non-functional requirements can be captured and converged into SiP-S3 requirements. Due to the interrelation between requirements of SiP-S3 and uncertainty of expert judgments, rough-DEMATEL is adopted but is revised in two aspects. Generally, SiP-S3 requirement items are plentiful, a set of programming code for rough set approximation is firstly given to reduce manual calculation burden. Moreover, compared to multiple operators of modified-CFCS (converting fuzzy values into crisp scores) plus SVL (single vector-length), a feasible and simpler operator of AVL (average vector-length) on rough-prominence and rough-relation is firstly devised to prioritise requirements. As such, roughness can be remained till at the end of calculation procedure to avoid uncertain assessment information loss. Surface mount technology (SMT) is not trivial in electronic manufacturing service industry, an illustrative case study of SMTE-S3 (SMT equipment-service system of systems) is demonstrated to verify feasibility and potential of proposal methodological framework.

Exploring the Opportunities of System of Systems Engineering to Complement Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering

Increased digitalization leads to an overlap of technical systems, their surrounding environment and their embedded systems. The concept System of Systems (SoS) progressively emerges, offering the potential to contribute to sustainable development. A SoS bundles the capabilities and resources of its subsystems and, through intelligent collaboration, offers more functionality than the sum of its sub-systems. The current research on SoS is rather fragmented and there is still an open discussion on basic taxonomic and ontological issues. One important topic being discussed is the applicability of SoS Engineering (SoSE) to other related research disciplines. In this paper, we examine the interrelations of sustainable manufacturing, Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) and SoSE. Therefore, we provide a typology and a process-oriented framework for the integration of SoSE as a complementary discipline within the context of sustainable manufacturing and LCE.