Syntactic Coding Research Articles

Mood alternation in German: Negation as a specific case of epistemic weakening

AbstractThis paper is mainly about a unique case of syntactic epistemic weakening, i.e. the present subjunctive mood and its negation trigger in surface coordination. In contrast to modern colloquial German, which limits the use of the present subjunctive quite restrictively to root clauses, the older periods of German, Old and Middle High German, showed an extended use of the subjunctive beyond root, i.e. also in dependent structures. However, the semantically interpreted as well as the grammatical subjunctive got entirely lost in Modern colloquial, albeit not quite in Standard written German. The focus of this paper is the discussion of mood in early complex (subordinated or coordinated) negated sentences. Exploiting mainly the MHG text of theLay of the Nibelungs, we focus on negated matrix structures, in superficially coordinated, but semantically dependent clauses. This suggests that thene-particle in co-construction with the subjunctive on the predicate was used to code clausal dependence from the previous (negated) clause. In further course, in specific semantic constructions, the original Middle High German interpretability of paratactic negation and the consequent denotation of non-factual situations were lost and gave way to the pure syntactic coding of dependency. The triangle of triggers contributing to the complex phenomenon consists of 1. negation of different sorts and in various syntactic distributions, 2. dependency marking, and 3. indicative–subjunctive marking on the dependent predicate. The attempt is made to draw comparisons to other epistemicity triggers such as syntactic and lexical nonveridicals.

К построению функциональной типологии знаков

In this paper, we propose a sketch of the functional classification of the sign as the main object of semiotics. The well-known structural classifications of the sign as a carrier of meaning and information were based on its use in communication, while the cognitive value of the sign as a means of cognition was emphasized. As a mental entity, developing in the process of cognition, from the idea of Possibility to revealing Regularity, the sign was represented by Ch. Pierce, who defined its basic, cognitive, function. In linguistics the role of the sign in communication was especially emphasized, systems of communicative functions of the language sign were proposed by K. Bühler and R. Jacobson. However, the specific tasks that different signs perform are not only related to the aspect of meaning, but also to their significance. Signs that regulate social interaction, as well as signs of art, highlight the value side of their content. R. Barthes believed that the function of a thing can be determined on the basis of its structure – in decomposing it into component parts and then in recomposing it; this way you can understand how the whole works. If you use this method, you can distinguish between different functional character types. In the process of semiosis semantic relations between the two sides of the sign (signans vs signatum) can be different, which allows us to distinguish three main functional types of signs: identifiers, regulators and models. A sign-identifier is usually closely connected with its object, it seems to be “talking about itself”; a sign-regulator has the character of an indication or imperative, it “tells you”, indicating the path to its object; a sign-model recreates the image of an object in another space – it “tells about something”. Modeling signs represent the most complex level of sign organization and semiotic problems. Modeling can use iconic techniques, including the principle of harmonic similarity (or syntactic coding, according to U. Eco), or use the principle of functional similarity. Modifications are possible for any type of signs. The functional types of signs are in a sense correlated with the functions of language in the model of K. Bühler. The proposed classification could systematize ideas about the functions of the sign and the essence of semiosis, in which, according to Ch. Morris, “something functions as a sign”. Functional typology of signs can serve as a methodological basis for a particular semiotic analysis in different areas of semiotics and linguistics.

CREATION OF METHODOLOGICAL BASIS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT SEGMENTS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PRESERVATION OF SEMANTIC INTEGRITY OF A VIDEO RESOURCE

The necessity of further improvement of technologies of effective syntactic coding of video information resources for ensuring their information security in systems of critical infrastructure is proved. It is shown that one of the stages is required to use the methods of identification of video frame segments by the degree of their saturation with structural elements. It is proved that it creates conditions for further decrease in bit volume, and consequently and increase of level of categories of availability and integrity of information resources. Development of identification of significant segments from the position of preservation of semantic integrity of video resource on the basis of use of system of rules for decision-making on information on structural and statistical properties of microsegments on a brightness component of color representation of a video frame is stated. Built a system of rules to identify segments of the video according to their degree of importance from the position maintain the necessary level of integrity of objects of interest, given the information value of local areas (these micro-segments) of the video frame, characterized by a greater homogeneity of their structural and statistical properties. The basic components of such a rule are substantiated, which include: at the first level, a system of comparisons of the indicator characterizing the level of structural and statistical saturation of microsegments with upper and lower threshold values is created. This is one of the three types of microsegment, characterized by respectively high, seredni ABO niskim runem structural statisticno nasyshennost on syntaxical run the description; the second level is the system of decision rules relative to the importance of the segment from the position of the SSTs of the video resource based on usage information about the number of these micro-segments with different levels of structural-statistical saturation. It is shown that the processing time delays are reduced due to the fact that the identification process is carried out only on the brightness component of the color representation of the video frame, which carries the main information load among the other color components.

An effective learning and teaching model for programming languages

Teaching and learning of programming languages is difficult as it involves the comprehension of theoretical background, practical usage of semantics and syntactic coding and algorithmic skills. Both teachers and students are unanimous about the programming fear of students, whereas programming skill is one of the core competences of computer science students. As a result, it is now a vital and an unavoidable issue to develop effective learning/teaching pedagogy for programming languages. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a well-established learning pedagogy where students engage themselves to self-learn, self-practice, and mainly focus on ill-structured problems. Traditional PBL is not fully suitable for the teaching and learning of programming languages to develop the required problem-solving skill. On the other hand, e-learning has been used in synchronous and asynchronous learning for the past few decades but not sufficient for developing programming skill. In this research, the authors have proposed a problem-based e-learning model which integrates traditional PBL with e-learning knowledge transfer. A problem model has also been proposed supporting structured, semistructured, and ill-structured problems. An architecture has been developed where a problem-bank is used to support the learning and teaching of multiple programming languages. An initial survey in the perspective of students has been performed to test the mannerism of the students about the model and found very positive result which accelerates further improvement of the system.

Syntactically Coded Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian: Developmental Issues and Pilot Studies

The paper deals with the main methodological issues of development of the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian with particular attention to its syntactic coding and applications for automatized language analysis. First, we consider a methodology of development of the Corpus as well as the principles of transcribing and coding Lithuanian speech data. The main concepts, such as “utterance” “sentence”, etc. are discussed. Second, we present results of a pilot study in interrogatives that are typical for natural spontaneous spoken Lithuanian. Results of the automatized analysis of interrogatives revealed that a frequency and distribution of the Wh- and yes/ no questions is rather similar. Among the Wh- questions, the questions non-containing the interrogative particle seem to be dominant, while the questions containing the interrogative particle at the beginning ot at the end were much rarer. Among the different functional subtypes of Wh- questions, adverbial ones seem to be the most freequent; among the adverbial Wh- questions, the spatial ones were the most frequent. Certainly, the present study is rather pilot due to the novelty of automatized syntactic approach to the data of spoken Lithuanian, thus much more complex studies still await for future investigations. A use of interrogative sentences will be studied from the perspective of different genres (e.g., monologue vs dialogue), social characteristic of the speakers, and a situation of conversation (e.g., public vs private speech). Generally, we believe that future systematic corpus-based research of spontaneous spoken language will give more possibilities to identify, evaluate, and elaborate the development of the Lithuanian language. Key words: corpus linguistics, syntax, syntactic coding, interrogatives, Lithuanian.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.sal.0.28.15131

Topic and topicality in text

In this study, topic and topicality are explored through the application of a model of analysis to a bilingual sample of English and Spanish written narrative texts in equivalent genres. A Core Annotation Scheme and an Extended Annotation Scheme were designed to search for and test ‘aboutness’ topics, frame setting topics, and the information status of discourse referents. The texts are also analysed for classes of topics, namely NewTops, GivTops, SubTops and ResTops. All the Annotation categories were tested in both the Spanish and the English texts. The results of the analysis show that aboutness topics and frame-setting topics are cross-linguistically stable categories, although language-specific differences are found in the syntactic coding, for instance in how Spanish marks topicless sentences. The distribution of the information status of discourse referents is also stable, with minor differences between languages and genres. Likewise, the distribution of the different classes of topics tallies with the general principles of topic organisation and information structure. A surprising result was to find a higher distribution of Resumed Topics than expected, suggesting that this class has a wider range of discourse functions than is usually noted in the literature.

VARIAÇÃO NO USO DO INFINITIVO PESSOAL

This paper investigates the variable use of the infinitive in oralBrazilian Portuguese considering both the verb morphology and the formalrepresentation of the subject. The analysis of sociolinguistic interviews shows thatthe speakers prefer both the non-finite verb form of the infinitive (92%) and nosubject expressed (71%). These results display a tendency for a regularization ofthe infinitive as an impersonal form. Empirical results also point out a correlationbetween finite verb form and formal representation of the subject, which are highlymarked constructions. The independent variables subject coreferentiality, semantic(in)determination of the subject and syntactic coding of the clause are statisticallysignificant for the expression of the subject.

The pragmatic function of numeral-classifiers in Mandarin Chinese

This paper reports on a study of the pragmatic function of numeral-classifiers in Mandarin Chinese. It argues that even though the most basic function of numeral-classifiers is to quantify and classify nouns, the motivation for their use can be neither syntactic nor semantic but pragmatic, i.e., they foreground the NPs to indicate their discourse salience. This claim is supported by results of two major tests in the study:(1) an examination of classified NPs in terms of their morphosyntactic characteristics, which found that numeral-classifiers co-occur with more prenominal modifiers, and (2) a quantitative analysis of natural spoken and written data in relation to their discourse features, which found that classified NPs usually occur in either foregrounded clauses or presentative sentences which introduce foregrounded entities/participants into discourse. In view of the multiple functions of numeral-classifiers, the different functions are then elucidated in terms of coding on different linguistic levels. It is proposed that quantification and classification are syntactic coding of numeral-classifiers, while foregrounding is pragmatic coding definable and measurable only on discourse level. The grounding account of numeral-classifiers also supports the principle of iconicity in that more important participants are more extensively and distinctly coded.

Asynchronous circuit synthesis: persistency and complete state coding constraints in signal transition graphs

The synthesis of asynchronous circuits is a challenging problem in VLSI design. Event based specification such as signal transition graphs are simple and powerful in specifying and synthesizing asynchronous behaviour. In this paper, the relation between signal transition graph syntactic constraints, i.e. persistency and complete state coding, is considered. A direct proof of the conditions under which a persistency violation leads to a complete state coding violation is presented. These conditions establish a direct correspondence between two syntactic constraints.

Designing a computerized lexicon for linguistic purposes By Erik Akkerman, Pieter Masereeuw, and Willem Meus (review)

728 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 62, NUMBER 3 (1986) tonacan, and Gulf Coast/Tabascan influence in the Mayan Late Classic is discussed. Besides the standard index, which is very complete (over six pages long), there are indices of hieroglyphic texts, hieroglyphic signs and compounds, and linguistic forms cited in the paper. My only criticism is that more illustrated examples should accompany the discussions of hieroglyphs, to help the reader follow the arguments . Otherwise, the monograph is very successful. A carefully constructed methodology has resulted in a real contribution to understanding both the cultural and the linguistic history of Eastern Meso-America. [Bruce Love, UCLA.] Designing a computerized lexicon for linguistic purposes. By Erik Akkerman , Pieter Masereeuw, and Willem Meus. (ASCOT report no. 1; Costerus, n.s., 51.) Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1985. Pp. 80. /25.00 [Distrib . in the US by Humanities Press; $15.00.] The first stage of development of a 'lexical database and analysing system' called Automatic] S[canning system for] Cforpus-] 0[riented] Tfasks], under development at the University of Amsterdam is reported here. ASCOT's purpose is to look up words from an English text in a lexicon, and attach category labels to them. Text which has been analyzed by this method can then serve as input to further syntactic analysis programs. Rather than develop their own special-purpose lexicon and syntactic feature system, the authors have chosen to adapt a commercially available dictionary. The second (and major) section of this report compares the virtues and flaws, from a computational point of view, of two dictionaries: the Longman dictionary of contemporary English and the Oxfordadvanced learner's dictionary. These two were chosen by virtue of being available on computer tape, while providing relatively complete categorial and sub-categorial information about lexical entries . After detailed comparison, it was found that the Longman dictionary is more computationally tractable: its syntactic coding is less erratic, the categories distinguished are more useful, and the structure of the lexical entries is simpler. Further sections of the report discuss problems encountered in the analysis of the Longman tape, the coding system adopted as the output ofthe analyser, and (briefly) the handling of morphology. Appendices contain examples of the Longman and Oxford coding systems. This work should be of interest not only to scholars concerned with adapting commercially available dictionaries for computational purposes —a group which is growing rapidly, because ofthe expense ofconstructing a large special -purpose lexicon from scratch—but also to general lexicographers, whether or not they are ultimately interested in machine applications. This is because the attempt to extract information from a lexicon by computer provides the best possible test of the degree of consistency and rigor with which principles of lexical entry structure and content have been applied. [Susanna Cumming, UCLA.] Psycholinguistics: The experimental study of language. By Gary D. Prideaux . New York: Guilford Press, 1985. Pp. viii, 312. Cloth $35.00, paper $15.95. As the title shows, P's handbook is not just an ordinary introduction to psycholinguistics: the viewpoint is that ofan experimental linguist. Exercises at the end of each chapter, as well as a set often laboratory exercises (211-76) listed after the conclusions, make the book particularly useful for the undergraduate student. An introductory chapter (1-37) quite naturally defines linguistics as an empirical science. However, this may be only part of the truth for readers who, unlike P, accept the existence of both autonomous and causal linguistics. Thus Esa Itkonen has argued (Causality in linguistic theory, 1983; see my review in Studies in language 10:1, 1986) that autonomous linguistics exists, and that it is non-empirical. However, P's intention was to write a book without too many polemics. The introduction is followed by a short exploration (39-69) of the concepts of comprehension , production, and acquisition of language . The bulk of the book is devoted to an outline of recent developments and current issues in the rapidly evolving domains of linguistics and psycholinguistics. Three chapters here deal respectively with morphology, syntax, and semantics. About thirty pages (71-97) consider 'experi- ...

Psycholinguistics: The experimental study of language By Gary D. Prideaux (review)

728 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 62, NUMBER 3 (1986) tonacan, and Gulf Coast/Tabascan influence in the Mayan Late Classic is discussed. Besides the standard index, which is very complete (over six pages long), there are indices of hieroglyphic texts, hieroglyphic signs and compounds, and linguistic forms cited in the paper. My only criticism is that more illustrated examples should accompany the discussions of hieroglyphs, to help the reader follow the arguments . Otherwise, the monograph is very successful. A carefully constructed methodology has resulted in a real contribution to understanding both the cultural and the linguistic history of Eastern Meso-America. [Bruce Love, UCLA.] Designing a computerized lexicon for linguistic purposes. By Erik Akkerman , Pieter Masereeuw, and Willem Meus. (ASCOT report no. 1; Costerus, n.s., 51.) Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1985. Pp. 80. /25.00 [Distrib . in the US by Humanities Press; $15.00.] The first stage of development of a 'lexical database and analysing system' called Automatic] S[canning system for] Cforpus-] 0[riented] Tfasks], under development at the University of Amsterdam is reported here. ASCOT's purpose is to look up words from an English text in a lexicon, and attach category labels to them. Text which has been analyzed by this method can then serve as input to further syntactic analysis programs. Rather than develop their own special-purpose lexicon and syntactic feature system, the authors have chosen to adapt a commercially available dictionary. The second (and major) section of this report compares the virtues and flaws, from a computational point of view, of two dictionaries: the Longman dictionary of contemporary English and the Oxfordadvanced learner's dictionary. These two were chosen by virtue of being available on computer tape, while providing relatively complete categorial and sub-categorial information about lexical entries . After detailed comparison, it was found that the Longman dictionary is more computationally tractable: its syntactic coding is less erratic, the categories distinguished are more useful, and the structure of the lexical entries is simpler. Further sections of the report discuss problems encountered in the analysis of the Longman tape, the coding system adopted as the output ofthe analyser, and (briefly) the handling of morphology. Appendices contain examples of the Longman and Oxford coding systems. This work should be of interest not only to scholars concerned with adapting commercially available dictionaries for computational purposes —a group which is growing rapidly, because ofthe expense ofconstructing a large special -purpose lexicon from scratch—but also to general lexicographers, whether or not they are ultimately interested in machine applications. This is because the attempt to extract information from a lexicon by computer provides the best possible test of the degree of consistency and rigor with which principles of lexical entry structure and content have been applied. [Susanna Cumming, UCLA.] Psycholinguistics: The experimental study of language. By Gary D. Prideaux . New York: Guilford Press, 1985. Pp. viii, 312. Cloth $35.00, paper $15.95. As the title shows, P's handbook is not just an ordinary introduction to psycholinguistics: the viewpoint is that ofan experimental linguist. Exercises at the end of each chapter, as well as a set often laboratory exercises (211-76) listed after the conclusions, make the book particularly useful for the undergraduate student. An introductory chapter (1-37) quite naturally defines linguistics as an empirical science. However, this may be only part of the truth for readers who, unlike P, accept the existence of both autonomous and causal linguistics. Thus Esa Itkonen has argued (Causality in linguistic theory, 1983; see my review in Studies in language 10:1, 1986) that autonomous linguistics exists, and that it is non-empirical. However, P's intention was to write a book without too many polemics. The introduction is followed by a short exploration (39-69) of the concepts of comprehension , production, and acquisition of language . The bulk of the book is devoted to an outline of recent developments and current issues in the rapidly evolving domains of linguistics and psycholinguistics. Three chapters here deal respectively with morphology, syntax, and semantics. About thirty pages (71-97) consider 'experi- BOOK NOTICES 729 mental morphology'. The discussion of the inflectional and derivational paradigms is very illuminating and includes a number of brilliant surveys. Unfortunately, however...

Finnish Syntax in Text: Methodology and Some Results of a Quantitative Study

The Paper contains a report on the theory and methodology used in a project on finnish syntax as investigated in (some genres of written) text. 123 texts containing 10,149 clauses (5016 graphical sentences) were analyzed according to a syntactic coding frame containing 63 variables. The variables include sentences structure, clause structure, clause type, clause function, clause length, surface word order, constituent structure, the text semantic and referential properties of nominal constituents, and some movement and deletion transformations. The theoretical considerations behind the selection of the variables are discussed in detail, as are the principles for syntactic sampling. The usefulness of the computer for certain low-level tasks is demonstrated, such as finding correlations between variables. The relevance of quantitative data to ‘qualitative’ syntactic description is stressed.

I liked the postcard you sent Abe and I: Context-sensitive coding of syntax and other procedural knowledge

A theory of the coding of syntactic knowledge is described and illustrated by means of its predictions regarding certain pronomial case errors in children. The theory assumes two levels of syntactic coding: (1) word classes (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions) and (2) concept functions in a proposition (relation, agent, object, recipient, location, etc.). Both word-class nodes and concept-function nodes are context-sensitive (overlapping triple) codes, which is the key to their encoding of serial order in both recognition and production.