Swiss Apple Research Articles

EXPERIENCE OF USING STEM CELLS IN PATIENTS WITH ATOPIC DERMATITIS

Recent research in this area has shown that in many tissues, including skin, stem cells become dormant as they mature, slowing down their rate of division and not responding as effectively to stimulation [1]. A decrease in the activity of stem cells leads to the fact that the rate of skin renewal slows down and defects begin to accumulate in it; the skin ages [2]. Recently, the attention of scientists has been attracted by plant stem cells, which produce a complex of molecular regulators that are universal. These regulators are capable of changing the functioning of human skin stem cells, partially returning them the energy of youth [3]. One of the most popular ingredients today is Swiss apple stem cells. Each adult apple stem cell can independently generate new cells and, in a concentration of just 0.1%, stimulate the division of human stem cells by 80% [4]. Phytostem (plant) cells were discovered relatively recently - only in the second half of the 20th century [5]. And the most effective in influencing human cells are considered to be plant stem cells, green apple phytostem cells. Scientists have proven that they are active biostimulators of human cells [6]. Plant cell preparations are absolutely hypoallergenic, unlike those obtained from animal or human tissues.

Approaches to implement genomic selection in three Swiss apple breeding programs

Approaches to implement genomic selection in three Swiss apple breeding programs

Comparison of exemplary crop protection strategies in Swiss apple production: Multi-criteria assessment of pesticide use, ecotoxicological risks, environmental and economic impacts

Plant protection products (PPP) are used to protect apples from pests and diseases and to maintain high yields and fruit quality. Alternatively, non-chemical plant protection measures can be applied to reduce the use and ecotoxicological risks of PPP. However, additional materials, energy or labor are needed, which can have an impact on the environmental or economic performance. To investigate possible trade-offs, this multi-criteria analysis examined different apple production systems based on exemplary crop protection strategies in Switzerland. One integrated crop protection strategy complying with the Swiss Proof of Ecological Performance (PEP2018) was used as a reference, and three exemplary strategies were compared to this reference. The integrated «PPP Reduced» strategy assumed a minimal use of synthetic PPPs in combination with a range of alternative plant protection measures to avoid yield losses. The conventional «High yield» strategy assumed maximum yields with minimal restrictions on the use of synthetic PPPs and fertilizer. Finally, the «Organic» strategy represented typical organic apple production without the use of synthetic PPPs. To compare the performance of these strategies, 13 indicators were calculated, covering four aspects. PPP use was analyzed with the treatment frequency index, local ecotoxicological risks for next-to-field habitats were modeled with SYNOPS, global environmental impacts of 1 kg apple were analyzed with life cycle assessment (LCA) and economic impact on farms was assessed with a full-cost calculation. Compared to the «PEP2018» strategy, the «PPP Reduced» strategy performed much better in terms of ecotoxicological risks and biodiversity, but was not profitable due to high investments resulting in a negative farmer's hourly wage. The ecotoxicological risks were comparable between the «PEP2018» and «High yield» strategies, with the latter performing much worse in terms of biodiversity and global warming potential. Despite the high capital and labor input, the «High yield» strategy was much better in terms of resource use and farmer's hourly wage. The «Organic» strategy had the largest impact (per kg of apples) on most global environmental indicators, but performed much better on ecotoxicological risks and also on farmer's hourly wage. The results of this study show that reducing the use of PPP and the associated risks in apple orchard without environmental or economic compromises is challenging. None of the strategies examined performed better than the other strategies in all indicators assessed. However, this approach could contribute to identify and design more sustainable crop protection systems in apple production.

The Effects of Extreme Weather on Apple Quality

A large literature has documented the effects of weather on agricultural yields. However, weather not only impacts the quantity produced, but also the quality of the product. Due to data limitations, the quality effects have primarily been studied using lab experiments for specific attributes, and the financial implications for farmers of a quality effect are less clear. Using a unique longitudinal micro-level data set of Swiss apple orchards that include information on both the quantity produced as well as the quality, we show that the latter can have an even larger effect on farm revenue. Ignoring the quality of the harvested product substantially biases the impact of weather extremes on agricultural income and the potential effects of climate change. Our quality measure is the orchard-year specific price shock. If an orchard gets a lower price for its specific apple variety compared to previous years and compared to other orchards in the same year, we observe the market’s valuation of its inferior quality accounting for overall price movements (other orchards growing same variety that year) as well as orchard specific factors (orchard fixed effects). We find that spring frost events induce farm gate price drops and thus revenue reductions of up to 2.05% per hour of exposure.

Predicting the phenology of codling moth, Cydia pomonella, for sustainable pest management in Swiss apple orchards

AbstractThe effects of temperature on post‐diapause development, female lifespan, and reproduction of Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) were studied under controlled conditions to determine the respective parameters for a temperature‐driven phenology model. Lower thermal thresholds of 10.0 and 9.7 °C and thermal constants of 417.2 and 427.7 degree days were established for post‐diapause development of females and males, respectively. Female lifespan was found to be 202.6 degree days on average, with a lower thermal threshold of 11.2 °C. Total fecundity was highest at 27.7 °C with an average of 241.9 eggs per female. Literature data were used to quantify the lower thermal thresholds and the thermal constants for eggs, larvae, and pupae. For validation, the model was run with weather data from 13 consecutive years and the output was compared with pheromone trap catches from 39 to 63 different orchards, depending on the year. The model proved to be a reliable and useful tool to forecast codling moth phenology under Swiss conditions not only for a whole growing season but also during several years with very variable weather conditions. Hence, it can be used to support apple growers in pest management decisions on the one hand and to predict changes in codling moth phenology with respect to climate change on the other.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE SWISS APPLE AND PEAR PRODUCTION

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE SWISS APPLE AND PEAR PRODUCTION

Spiders associated with the meadow and tree canopies of orchards respond differently to habitat fragmentation

The response of animal communities to habitat quality and fragmentation may vary depending on microhabitat associations of species. For example, sensitivity of species to woody habitat fragmentation should increase with their degree of association with woody plants. We investigated effects of local and landscape factors on spider communities in different microhabitats within Swiss apple orchards. We expected a stronger negative effect of woody habitat fragmentation on spiders inhabiting tree canopies compared to spiders living in the meadow. The 30 orchards that we sampled varied in woody habitat amount and isolation at landscape and patch scales. Local factors included management intensity and plant diversity. Spiders associated with meadow were affected by plant diversity, but not by fragmentation. In contrast, spiders associated with canopies responded to isolation from other woody habitats. Surprisingly, we found both positive and negative effects of habitat isolation on local abundance. This indicates that differences in dispersal and/or biotic interactions shape the specific response to habitat isolation. The relative importance of local and landscape factors was in accordance with the microhabitat of the spiders. Thus, considering microhabitat associations can be important for identifying processes that would be overlooked if sampling were pooled for the whole habitat.

Population models for threshold-based control of Tetranychus urticae in small-scale Kenyan tomato fields and for evaluating weather and host plant species effects

The spatial distribution of motile life stages of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch in Kenyan small-scale tomato fields was described by Taylor's power law and an enumerative sampling plan was designed for research purposes. The exponential increase of T. urticae populations during three growing seasons permits the development and use of a simple exponential model for the design of a threshold-based chemical control system. For this purpose, a critical threshold of 440 motile mites per sample unit at the end of the growing season (12 weeks after transplanting) was translated into a proportion of 0.83 infested units in sample 3, i.e. five weeks after transplanting. A sequential binomial sampling plan with respect to the proportion of 0.83, five weeks after transplanting, was designed. The exponential model was extended to account for the influence of weather and host plant species. Model development and parameter estimation were based on three data sets (Kenyan tomato fields, Italian and Californian strawberry fields). The model satisfactorily predicted a positive influence on growth rates by (i) changing the host plant from tomato to strawberry, and (ii) temperature, while a negative effect resulted from (iii) rainfall; both (ii) and (iii) are controlled by temperature-rainfall interactions. In contrast, the estimated parameter values did not satisfactorily describe the expected responses at specific temperature and rainfall values. Nevertheless, the model allowed the rating of host plant species in the field. A fourth data set from Swiss apple orchards was used to test the model, and population build-up on the apple host plant appeared to be higher than on tomatoes but lower than on strawberry.

Detection of the fire blight biocontrol agent Bacillus subtilis BD170 (Biopro�) in a Swiss apple orchard

Fire blight, caused by Erwinia amylovora, is a major disease threat to apple, pear and other pome fruit worldwide. The disease is widespread in Europe and has recently become established in Switzerland. Antibiotics are the most effective controls used in North America but these are not permitted for agricultural use in most European countries. A newly registered biological control product Biopro®, based on the antagonist Bacillus subtilis strain BD170, is being used as an alternative strategy for fire blight management. A specific molecular marker was developed for monitoring the spread of this agent on blossoms after Biopro® spray application in a Swiss apple orchard throughout the bloom period for 2years. Direct spraying resulted in efficient primary colonisation of pistils in flowers that were open at the time of treatment. Subsequent bacterial dissemination (secondary colonisation) of flowers that were closed or at bud stage at the time of treatment was observed but was found to be dependent on the timing of treatments relative to bloom stage in the orchard. Foraging honeybees were shown to be disseminators of Biopro®. We also report detection of the biocontrol agent in honey collected from hives where bees were exposed by placing Biopro® at the entrance or in the hatching nest and from hives that were simply placed in sprayed orchards.

ECOLOGICAL APPLE PRODUCTION: A COMPARISON OF ORGANIC AND INTEGRATED APPLE-GROWING

In 1995, an experiment was planted at Wadenswil for comparing organic and integrated apple production. The overall goal of this experiment was to develop a data set which allows for an objective overall comparison of the two production concepts. Horticultural, ecological and economical traits were looked at. In practical terms, the study should particularly clarify how suitable the two systems are for producing marketable fresh fruit under Swiss conditions. The approach of an on-station comparison with a split-plot design with 3 replicate blocks and the factors “production system” (1st factor) and “variety” (2nd factor) was chosen. Ninety-four percent of Swiss apple acreage is managed according to integrated production, and 5% according to organic guidelines 2001. Conventional production is therefore lacking practical relevance and was not included in this trial. Cultivars Boskoop, Pommes Cloche, Idared and Resi were planted on rootstock M9 at a 3.4 by 1.4m spacing. The crop management was dynamically adapted every year according to the most advanced crop management technology that is appropriate in the particular in situ situation of the trial and that is permitted by the most recent Swiss guidelines for each of the two production systems. In particular, parameters of tree growth, fruit growth, yield and fruit quality, crop protection, crop economy and crop ecology were assessed. In 2001, additional analytical fruit quality parameters were measured and extensive sensory tests were performed. This study provides the first scientific comparison of organic and integrated apple production under European conditions. The paper presents preliminary conclusions while the last cropping season of the experiment is still on-going and final data analyses will be possible in 2003.

SOPRA: A FORECASTING TOOL FOR INSECT PESTS IN APPLE ORCHARDS

SOPRA, a phenology-model based forecasting tool for insect pests has been developed with the objective to optimize the timing of monitoring, management and control measures in Swiss apple orchards. Applying the time-varying distributed delay approach, air and soil temperature driven phenology-models were developed for three major insect pests of apple: The rosy apple aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea) the apple sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea) and the smaller fruit tortrix (Grapholitha lobarzewskii). The models were parameterized using the relationships between temperature and stage specific developmental rates established under controlled conditions. For validation, model predictions were compared with independent field observations from several years, on the hatching of winter eggs in the case of the rosy apple aphid, and the emergence of adults in the case of the apple sawfly and the smaller fruit tortrix. For additional pests a routine was implemented to compute temperature sums for user defined temperature thresholds. The user interface was designed as a common MS-Windows@ application in order to facilitate the simultaneous use of the different models, and to standardize the weather data input, and numerical and graphical output. SOPRA predicts the age structure of rosy apple aphid, apple sawfly and smaller fruit tortrix populations, computes temperature sums for other pests and announces crucial events for management activities. Provided air and soil temperature data are available, SOPRA can be applied as a decision support system for insect pest management on a local and a regional scale.

Integrated pest management in Swiss apple orchards: Stability and risks

AbstractIn recent years, a system of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been introduced in many Swiss apple orchards. It is based on monitoring pests and natural enemies, on a package of selective pesticides and on biological control of phytophagous mites by typhlodromids. Some natural control has also been introduced for aphids and leafrollers. Stability of this approach is offered by natural control and by monitoring. Risks exist in two fields: Selective pesticides may disappear due to resistance and to other undesirable side effects. Outbreaks of secondary pests occur and will continue to do so in the future. In the past few years populations of scale insects and of Grapholita prunivorana (Rag.) have built up to damaging levels in some regions.

Control of crown gall in Swiss apple nurseries1

Experiments to control crown gall, caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, were carried out in an apple‐rootstock nursery. One‐year‐old apple rootstocks (M 9) were dipped in different concentrations of several copper compounds before planting. The compounds were used alone or in mixtures with clay or glue. Good control of crown gall was obtained with Copac E cuprammonium (ammoniacal cupric sulphate) and with copper oxychloride in clay slurries or mixed with glue. Although treatment with 2‐methoxyethylmercury chloride prevented the development of crown gall, phytotoxicity was severe.

Observations on Population Levels of the European Red Mite (Acarina: Tetranychidae) and Associated Arthropod Predator Complexes in Different Spray Programs Over a 5-Year Period

Selective and nonselective insecticide and fungicide treatments were applied in season-long programs in a Swiss apple orchard, for the control of arthropod and fungal pest complexes. The effects of these treatments on the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), and its predators were studied over a period of 5 years. Abroad-spectrum compound, azinphos-methyl, gave good control of the codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., under a program of four to six sprays every 2 weeks per season. Equal or slightly inferior control was given by the more selective chemicals, chlordimeform and diflubenzuron. Fungicides used were either mite-suppressive or had no effect on mite predators. Effective P. ulmi predation was also enhanced by the use of selective acaricides and the combined effects of a predaceous mite, Amblyseius finlandicus (Oudemans), and a number of beneficial insects which became established in the blocks that received the selective insecticide treatments. These beneficial arthropods kept P. ulmi numbers below the damage threshold, demonstrating that integrated chemical and biological control of this pest is possible.

Sampling statistics for Panonychus ulmi (Koch) (Acarina, Tetranychidae) and Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina, Tetranychidae) feeding on apple trees

The distribution of Panonychus ulmi (Koch) and Tetranychus urticaeKoch as observed in Swiss apple orchards was analyzed in a multi-stage sampling procedure. Based on the variance-mean relationship (Taylor, 1961) a transformation of mite counts was made. Major sources of variation were found in between-tree and between-crown level differences. In usingBliss andOwen's (1958) method the negative binomial model was concluded to be appropriate for the description of the P. ulmi but not for the T. urticae distribution. HenceCroft's et al. (1976) sampling statistics was recalculated for P. ulmi only. The mean crowding index (Lloyd, 1967) was linearly related (Iwao, 1968) to the mean for P. ulmi and to a less extent for T. urticae that was found in much lower density range. Based on the mean crowding statistics a sampling program afterKuno, (1976) is proposed for both species. Some differences between the sampling plans and their applicability are discussed.