Sweet Liking Research Articles

Secondary Analysis of Sweetness Liking from Pilot Study Replacing Sugar Sweetened Soda with Flavored, Unsweetened Sparkling Water

Objective This study aimed to evaluate changes in sensory ratings (liking, sweetness intensity, “just about right” (JAR) level of sweetness) of 0–10.7% w/w sugar in soda after 1 and 2 wk of replacing sugar-sweetened soda consumption with unsweetened, flavored, sparkling water. Methods Consumers of sugar-sweetened sodas (17 men and women, average age 28 years) replaced their sodas with unsweetened, flavored sparkling waters for 2 wk. Changes in sensory ratings were evaluated for sodas ranging from 0–10.7% w/w added sugar. In a secondary analysis, cluster analysis identified “Sweet Likers” (liking increased with sugar concentration) and “Sweet Moderates” (liking peaked in the middle of the concentration range) in the baseline ratings, and models for changes in sensory ratings were reevaluated by sweet-liking group. Results The primary analyses showed no significant effects of the intervention on sweetness intensity or liking ratings. However, the secondary analysis showed that Sweet Likers reduced liking ratings for all sodas, but particularly for the highest concentration (p = 0.0021) after the intervention. Sweet Moderates, however, increased liking ratings after the intervention, driven by an increase in liking for the lower concentrations of sugar (p = 0.0058). Additionally, Sweet Moderates increased their overall ratings for sweetness intensity in sodas (p = 0.00074). Conclusion These results suggest that the intervention may have been more successful in shifting sensory perception and acceptance of less-sweet sodas for Sweet Moderates than for Sweet Likers. These results should be verified in a larger sample that intentionally recruits by sweet liker status, to see if initial liking for sweetness may be a critical factor in interventions aiming to improve liking of less sweet beverages.

Neural responses to oral administration of erythritol vs. sucrose and sucralose explain differences in subjective liking ratings

IntroductionHigh sugar intake is associated with many chronic diseases. However, non-caloric sweeteners (NCSs) might fail to successfully replace sucrose due to the mismatch between their rewarding sweet taste and lack of caloric content. The natural NCS erythritol has been proposed as a sugar substitute due to its satiating properties despite being non-caloric. We aimed to compare brain responses to erythritol vs. sucrose and the artificial NCS sucralose in a priori taste, homeostatic, and reward brain regions of interest (ROIs). MethodsWe performed a within-subject, single-blind, counterbalanced fMRI study in 30 healthy men (mean ± SEM age:24.3 ± 0.8 years, BMI:22.3 ± 0.3 kg/m2). Before scanning, we individually matched the concentrations of both NCSs to the perceived sweetness intensity of a 10% sucrose solution. During scanning, participants received 1 mL sips of the individually titrated equisweet solutions of sucrose, erythritol, and sucralose, as well as water. After each sip, they rated subjective sweetness liking. ResultsLiking ratings were significantly higher for sucrose and sucralose vs. erythritol (both pHolm = 0.0037); water ratings were neutral. General Linear Model (GLM) analyses of brain blood oxygen level-depended (BOLD) responses at qFDR<0.05 showed no differences between any of the sweeteners in a priori ROIs, but distinct differences were found between the individual sweeteners and water. These results were confirmed by Bayesian GLM and machine learning-based models. However, several brain response patterns mediating the differences in liking ratings between the sweeteners were found in whole-brain multivariate mediation analyses. Both subjective and neural responses showed large inter-subject variability. ConclusionWe found lower liking ratings in response to oral administration of erythritol vs. sucrose and sucralose, but no differences in neural responses between any of the sweeteners in a priori ROIs. However, differences in liking ratings between erythritol vs. sucrose or sucralose are mediated by multiple whole-brain response patterns.

Understanding the determinants of sweet taste liking in the African and East Asian ancestry groups in the U.S.-A study protocol.

The liking for sweet taste is a powerful driver for consuming added sugars, and therefore, understanding how sweet liking is formed is a critical step in devising strategies to lower added sugars consumption. However, current research on the influence of genetic and environmental factors on sweet liking is mostly based on research conducted with individuals of European ancestry. Whether these results can be generalized to people of other ancestry groups warrants investigation. We will determine the differences in allele frequencies in sweet-related genetic variants and their effects on sweet liking in 426 adults of either African or East Asian ancestry, who have the highest and lowest average added sugars intake, respectively, among ancestry groups in the U.S. We will collect information on participants' sweet-liking phenotype, added sugars intake (sweetness exposure), anthropometric measures, place-of-birth, and for immigrants, duration of time living in the U.S. and age when immigrated. Ancestry-specific polygenic scores of sweet liking will be computed based on the effect sizes of the sweet-related genetic variants on the sweet-liking phenotype for each ancestry group. The predictive validity of the polygenic scores will be tested using individuals of African and East Asian ancestry from the UK Biobank. We will also compare sweet liking between U.S.-born individuals and immigrants within each ancestry group to test whether differences in environmental sweetness exposure during childhood affect sweet liking in adulthood. Expanding genetic research on taste to individuals from ancestry groups traditionally underrepresented in such research is consistent with equity goals in sensory and nutrition science. Findings from this study will help in the development of a more personalized nutrition approach for diverse populations. This protocol has been preregistered with the Center for Open Science (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WPR9E).

Comparing body composition between the sweet-liking phenotypes: experimental data, systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis.

Legislation aimed at reducing sugar intake assumes that sweet-liking drives overconsumption. However, evidence that a greater liking for sweet taste is associated with unhealthier body size is mixed and complicated by relatively small samples, an overreliance on body mass index (BMI) and lack of classification using sweet-liking phenotypes. We first examined body size data in two larger samples with sweet-liking phenotyping: extreme sweet-likers, moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers. Adults (18-34yrs), attended a two-session lab-based experiment involving phenotyping for sweet-liking status and a bioelectrical impedance body composition measurement (Experiment One: N = 200; Experiment Two: N = 314). Secondly, we conducted an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis: systematic searches across four databases identified 5736 potential articles. Of these, 53 papers met our search criteria: a taste assessment that measured liking using sucrose (>13.7% w/v), which allowed sweet-liking phenotyping and included either BMI, body fat percentage (BF%), fat-free mass (FFM) or waist-circumference. A significant effect of sweet-liking phenotype on FFM was found in both Experiment One and Two, with extreme sweet-likers having significantly higher FFM than sweet-dislikers. In Experiment One, sweet-dislikers had a significantly higher BF% than extreme sweet-likers and moderate sweet-likers. However, as these data are from one research group in a young, predominantly westernised population, and the results did not perfectly replicate, we conducted the IPD meta-analyses to further clarify the findings. Robust one-stage IPD meta-analyses of 15 studies controlling for sex revealed no significant differences in BF% (n = 1836) or waist-circumference (n = 706). For BMI (n = 2368), moderate sweet-likers had slightly lower BMI than extreme sweet-likers, who had the highest overall BMI. Most interestingly, for FFM (n = 768), moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers showed significantly lower FFM than extreme sweet-likers. The higher BMI often seen in sweet-likers may be due to a larger FFM and questions the simple model where sweet liking alone is a risk factor for obesity.

Does sweetness exposure drive 'sweet tooth'?

It is widely believed that exposure to sweetened foods and beverages stimulates the liking and desire for sweetness. Here we provide an updated review of the empirical evidence from human research examining whether exposure to sweet foods or beverages influences subsequent general liking for sweetness (‘sweet tooth’), based on the conclusions of existing systematic reviews and more recent research identified from a structured search of literature. Prior reviews have concluded that the evidence for a relationship between sweet taste exposure and measures of sweet taste liking is equivocal, and more recent primary research generally does not support the view that exposure drives increased liking for sweetness, in adults or children. In intervention trials using a range of designs, acute exposure to sweetness usually has the opposite effect (reducing subsequent liking and desire for sweet taste), while sustained exposures have no significant effects or inconsistent effects. Recent longitudinal observational studies in infants and children also report no significant associations between exposures to sweet foods and beverages with measures of sweet taste preferences. Overall, while it is widely assumed that exposure to sweetness stimulates a greater liking and desire for sweetness, this is not borne out by the balance of empirical evidence. While new research may provide a more robust evidence base, there are also a number of methodological, biological and behavioural considerations that may underpin the apparent absence of a positive relationship between sweetness exposure and liking.

Sweet liking predicts liking and familiarity of some alcoholic beverages, but not alcohol intake: A population study using a split-sample approach

Sweetness has been proposed to be an important quality in the decision to consume alcohol, and strong preferences for sweet tastes have been associated with alcohol abuse. However, alcohol is characterized by a number of other sensory properties, including astringency and bitterness that may drive preference and consumption. Spinelli et al. (2021) classified individuals into three sweet-sensory liking clusters (High Sweet-Liking, Moderate Sweet-Liking, and Inverted-U) that differed in their sweetness optima and sensory-liking patterns (relationship between liking and sweetness, bitterness and astringency perception in a food model). The current paper replicates the sweet sensory-liking clusters in a new set of participants (n = 1976), and extends the predicted value of these clusters examining their relationship to wine and other types of alcoholic beverages by gender using a split-sample approach on a total of over 3000 adults. The sweet sensory-liking clusters had a predictive relationship for the familiarity and liking of some alcoholic beverages characterized by stronger tastes, but not weekly alcohol intake levels. Thus, although sweet sensory-liking clusters may be associated with the type of beverages and frequency with which a person will drink and enjoy a type of alcoholic beverage, they are poor predictors of the quantity of alcohol that a person ingests over the course of a week.

Association between Severe Early Childhood Caries, Dietary Preferences, and 2nd Digit-4th Digit (2D:4D) Ratio.

To evaluate the association between severe early childhood caries (S-ECC), dietary preferences, and 2nd digit-4th digit (2D:4D) ratio. The objective is to contrast the detection and prevalence of dental caries in children with different sensitivity levels to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and its association with 2D:4D. A total of 300 children below 71 months of age were assigned to two study groups-group I (caries-free) and group II (caries). PROP sensitivity test was carried out to determine the inherent genetic ability to taste a bitter or sweet substance. Evaluation of dietary preferences was carried out using a food preference questionnaire, which was completed by the parents of the children to know the child's dietary habits and their sweet, sour, and strong taste preferences. The length of the index (2D) and ring (4D) finger was measured with the help of digital vernier caliper to record the 2D:4D ratio. The data obtained was subjected to statistical analysis using Pearson's Chi-squared test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results suggested a positive association between S-ECC and dietary preferences but could not establish a straightforward 1:1 relation between 2D:4D ratio and S-ECC. An individual considered as nontaster by PROP test was a sweet liker with low 2D:4D ratio having high caries index. The association between 2D:4D ratio and S-ECC should further be explored by taking other influencing factors into consideration before arriving at a definitive conclusion. Srivastava SK, Garg N, Pathivada L, et al. Association between Severe Early Childhood Caries, Dietary Preferences, and 2nd Digit-4th Digit (2D:4D) Ratio. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2023;16(5):740-744.

Chemical and physical properties of winter squash and their correlation with liking of their sensory attributes.

Cucurbita moschata, commonly known as squash or pumpkin, is a member of the Cucurbitaceae family originating from Central America. This species is regarded as heat tolerant and disease resistant and is commonly used in breeding programs. Calabaza (wintersquash) is an emerging market type of C. moschata with increasing popularity in the United States; however, limited research has been conducted to understand how sensory qualities influence consumers' acceptability and willingness to pay (price). This study compared the sensory perception of C. moschata accessions grown in the continental southeastern United States with their physical and chemical properties using squash prepared from fresh and frozen states. The eight accessions investigated included five hybrids of calabaza from the University of Florida (University of Florida Tropical Pumpkin #), two commercial cultivars of calabaza (La Estrella and Soler), and one butternut squash cultivar (Waltham). The evaluation of fresh calabaza revealed significant differences in consumer preference among cultivars in addition to correlations with sensory attributes. UFTP8 and UFTP24 received the highest ratings, whereas UFTP38 and 'La Estrella' were rated lowest. Interestingly, the evaluation of frozen calabaza revealed UFTP8 and 'Waltham' Butternut squash as the highest in ranking, while UFTP38 and 'La Estrella' retained the lowest ranking. Consumer ratings of fresh samples revealed positive correlations between overall liking, sweetness liking, and texture liking with willingness to pay and soluble solids content (SSC). For calabaza intended for the frozen market, the color, hardness, and SSC were identified as the most significant parameters impacting willingness to pay. These results show how quality attributes can play a crucial role in consumers perception of quality and significantly influence their reported willingness to pay. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Producers and breeders can use positively correlated attributes as indicators of overall liking and to determine pricing for C. moschata products.

Effect of an 8-day exposure to a diet high in sugars on liking for palatable snacks and sweetness

Effect of an 8-day exposure to a diet high in sugars on liking for palatable snacks and sweetness

Rejection thresholds for sweetness reduction in a model drink predict dietary sugar intake

Links between individual sweetness perception and sugar intake have been previously explored, with highly contrasting results. The current study aims to test individual-based rejection thresholds (RjTs) to ascending and descending sucrose concentrations in a model drink, and to evaluate potential links between these measures and sugar intake behaviour in real life. Sixty-three participants (final N = 43 [f = 29]; 20 ± 5 years) each undertook three sensory testing sessions and completed a 4-day weighed food records. Each individual was tested for their Sweet Liker status, detection thresholds to sucrose, RjTs to 5 descending and 5 ascending sucrose concentrations in an orange-flavoured drink, as well as sugar intake in daily diet and from sweetened beverages. The results demonstrate that RjTs can be estimated an individual level. With each participant completing 4 replications of the RjT task, data from over 88% of participants produced a reasonable individual-based psychometric function. Intriguingly, descending, but not ascending, RjTs were positively correlated with sweet liking (r = 0.43, p < 0.01), and acted as a significant predictor of both overall dietary sugar intakes (R2 = 0.10, F(4,38) = 2.23, p = 0.050) and sugar intakes from sweetened beverages (R2 = 0.21, F(4,38) = 3.73, p = 0.012). While sweet likers (SL) and dislikers (SD) had comparable ascending RjTs (acceptance for sugar addition), they differed substantially in terms of descending RjTs (p = 0.002; acceptance for sugar reduction), with SL rejecting samples having > 47% sugar reduction (47 g/L), whereas SD rejecting samples with > 68% reduction (28 g/L). Overall, these findings suggest that descending RjTs is a useful measure for detecting a sensory-diet relationship, and should be considered to better inform sugar reduction targets and facilitate policies on product reformulation.

Phenotypic differences in taste hedonics: The effects of sweet liking

Phenotypic differences in sweet liking are well known, but how they relate to actual eating habits and liking for other taste qualities remains unclear. In Experiment One (222 participants), we explored if the three sweet-liking phenotypes (extreme sweet-likers, moderate sweet-likers and sweet dislikers) differed in liking for foods and beverages commonly associated with obesogenic westernised diets categorised into three groups (high fat, high sugar, or high fat-sugar) alongside rated liking for foods grouped by five taste qualities (bitter, fatty, salty, spicy and sweet foods). Multiple linear regression models found significant differences between the sweet-liking phenotypes in liking for foods classified as high fat-sugar and high sugar, as well as for sweet foods but not for other taste qualities, with extreme sweet-likers rating liking for these foods significantly higher than sweet dislikers. No other significant differences between the three phenotypes were found. Experiment Two (298 participants) aimed to replicate these findings and investigate if an increased liking for these foods translates into higher intake using a high fat-sugar food frequency questionnaire. Again, extreme sweet-likers rated liking for sweet foods and foods grouped as high fat-sugar significantly higher than sweet dislikers but also disliked bitter foods more. No other significant differences were found, including no differences in the frequency of consumption of these foods. Overall, these data suggest that phenotypic differences in sweet taste liking may be specific to liking for foods high in sweetness only and do not generalise to real-life consumption or liking for other taste qualities unless sweetness is also present.

Using correlation matrices to standardise sweet liking status classification

Distinct hedonic patterns of sweet taste liking have been widely recognised for more than half a century. Despite there being a growing consensus on the role of Sweet Liking Status (SLS) in food choice behaviour, current classification methods for this phenotype generally lack consistency. Using a large dataset (n = 865), the present study applied Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) followed by correlation matrices as a validated and robust method for SLS classification by using five sucrose solutions (3, 6, 12, 24 and 36 %). As demonstrated in the present study, AHC alone was not a sufficient method to generate reliable SLS clusters. Following a validated correlation matrix approach, three distinct consumer clusters were identified: High Sweet Likers (HSL), Medium Sweet Likers (MSL) and Low Sweet Likers (LSL). Robust mean liking scores were generated for each of the three clusters across five different concentrations of sucrose. The results suggested that in order to enable more efficient and comprehensive SLS classification, a correlation-based approach for SLS classification using the validated liking means provided in the current study should be adopted in future research. In addition, a rapid three-solution method (3 %, 12 % and 36 %) was also explored as a simplified and more efficient way of classifying participants for SLS. The rapid three-solution method accurately classified the majority of HSL, MSL and LSL within the dataset. The data showed a good level of agreement between the rapid three-solution method and validated five-solution method, therefore suggesting that a rapid three-solution method can be considered when exploring the two hedonic extremes (HSL and LSL) when additional noise in the data can be tolerated.

The relationship between sweetness exposure and sweetness liking in infants 3-12 months of age

The relationship between sweetness exposure and sweetness liking in infants 3-12 months of age

Evaluating the sense of agency for taste in moderate sweet likers

Evaluating the sense of agency for taste in moderate sweet likers

The sweet tooth of infancy: Is sweetness exposure related to sweetness liking in infants up to 12 months of age?

Infants become increasingly exposed to sweet-tasting foods in their first year of life. However, it is still unclear whether repeated exposure to sweet taste is linked to infants' sweetness liking during this period. Making use of data from the OPALINE cohort, this study aimed to examine the link between sweetness exposure and sweetness liking during two important periods in early infant feeding: at the start of complementary feeding (3-6 months) and the transition to the family table (10-12 months). Infants' sweetness exposure was assessed using 7-d food records which were completed by mothers every month (n 312), reporting daily consumption rates of formula/breast milk or complementary food and the type of formula milk and/or complementary foods for each feeding occasion. Infants' sweetness liking was studied in the laboratory at 3, 6 and 12 months of age by assessing their response to a lactose-water solution and the amount drunk of this solution compared with plain water. Linear regressions and structural equation model assessed associations between exposure to and liking for sweetness at 6 and 12 months. Neither at 6 (n 182) nor at 12 months (n 197) was sweetness exposure associated with sweetness liking. While sweetness liking at 3 months was unrelated to liking at 6 months, the latter predicted sweetness liking at 12 months. These findings demonstrate no association between sweetness exposure at 3 to 12 months and liking at 6 and 12 months despite a sharp increase in sweetness exposure in that period. However, sweetness liking at 6 and 12 months was positively associated.

Study Protocol: Sensory Effects of Replacing Sugar Sweetened Sodas With Unsweetened, Flavored Sparkling Water

Abstract Objectives Excess sugar consumption contributes to numerous chronic diseases. Prior work has typically emphasized replacing sugar-sweetened beverages, a key source of excess dietary sugar, with low-calorie sweetened beverages. Our protocol aims to instead replace sugar sodas with unsweetened, flavored sparkling water products, which are available in the same containers and at comparable prices to sugary sodas. Methods Participants who consume at least 2 sugar-sweetened sodas per day are being recruited for this project. Flavored, unsweetened sparkling waters will be provided to participants for 2 weeks, with sensory evaluations at baseline, 1 week, and 2 weeks. At the end of the 2-week intervention, we will provide participants with information on the costs and how to find the flavored, unsweetened sparkling water products. Two weeks post intervention, participants will be asked whether they continued to consume the sparkling waters or if they reverted back to sugar-sweetened soda consumption. We will use linear mixed models with subject as a repeated measure to determine the effect of replacement of sugar-sweetened sodas beverages with sparkling waters on: liking of sweetness in soda-like beverages, “just about right” concentration of sugar/intensity of sweetness in soda-like beverages, and post-intervention beverage selection. Results As this is a protocol abstract, results have yet to be obtained. However, we hypothesize that participants who comply with substituting sparkling waters for sweetened sodas will exhibit sensory shifts to prefer lower concentrations of sugar and liking for lower sweetness intensity in beverages. We expect these participants will also report continuing to consume the sparkling water products at 2 weeks post intervention. Conclusions Data from this study will inform future work on whether commercially available water products could shift sensory preferences for sweetness, which could aid in interventions to curb added sugar intake. Funding Sources This study is supported by a Pilot and Feasibility Award within the Indiana CTSI/CDMD, an initiative funded by the NIH/NIDDK.

Sensory Capacities and Eating Behavior: Intriguing Results from a Large Cohort of Italian Individuals.

Eating behavior (EB) is a complex system influenced by many factors, but an undisputed role is played by the senses. In this work, we examined the effect of the sensory capacities on EB in 1152 Italian adult individuals. After administering a questionnaire on EB and assessing sensory performance through standard audiometric, olfactory, and taste tests, the prevalence of reduced sensory capacities (RSCs) and the correlation with selected risk factors were calculated. Regression models, structural equation modelling, and conditional recursive partitioning were used to investigate the relationship between variables. Around 70% of the subjects show reduced capacities in at least one sense, with taste being the most prevalent (55.21%). Male sex, aging, and low educational level are risk factors for RSCs. The increased number of senses with reduced capacities is a predictor of diminished food adventurousness and lower liking for vegetables, fish, and alcoholic beverages, while reduced capacities (RCs) in taste is a predictor of lower liking for alcoholic beverages and sweets. Overall, in addition to providing an overall picture of RSCs in Italian samples, our study reveals the association of RSCs with EB variables. This finding could have a relevant role in influencing individuals’ dietary habits and, therefore, health status.

Re-evaluating how sweet-liking and PROP-tasting are related.

Past research has identified distinct phenotypic differences in responses to sweet taste, although the origins of these differences remain unclear. One possibility is that these individual differences in sweet-liking are a manifestation of the more widely known differences in sensitivity to the bitter tastant 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), which has been related to wider differences in food liking and preference. However, previous studies exploring the relationship between sweet-liking and PROP-tasting have had mixed outcomes. This is possibly due to older studies using a more simplistic dichotic characterisation of sweet likers, whereas recent research suggests three sweet-liking phenotypes (extreme sweet likers, ESL; moderate sweet likers, MSL; and sweet dislikers, SD). To re-assess how sweet-liking and PROP tasting are inter-related, 236 volunteers evaluated their liking for 1.0 M sucrose and the intensity of three concentrations of each NaCl and PROP. Using three different methods for classifying PROP taster status, our analysis confirmed that all three sweet-liking phenotypes were represented in all three PROP taster groups (super-tasters, ST; medium tasters, MT; and non-tasters, NT), but relatively few ESL were classified as ST, or SD as NT. Overall, these data suggest that while PROP tasting and sweet-liking are not causally related, the SD phenotype may partly be explained by a broader tendency for anhedonia.

Bitter and sweet taste perception: relationships to self-reported oral hygiene habits and oral health status in a survey of Australian adults

BackgroundOral health, an essential part of general health and well-being, is influenced by multiple factors, including oral hygiene habits and dietary factors. Dietary preferences are influenced by variation in taste perceptions and threshold tasting. Polymorphisms in specific genes for sweet and bitter taste receptors and bitter taste perception have been associated with dental caries. However, taste is complex with multiple receptors, each with multiple potential polymorphisms contributing to taste perception as well as social, cultural, and environmental influences. Additionally, these association studies have been conducted in restricted cohorts (e.g., children only). Furthermore, outcomes have been limited to dental caries and studies between taste perception and oral hygiene habits have not been completed.MethodsA cross-sectional online survey was conducted to investigate the relationships between bitter and sweet taste perception (liking and intensity of index food items), self-reported oral hygiene habits and oral health (n = 518).ResultsHigher mean intensity scores for bitter (16–21%) and sweet (< 5%-60%) were seen with higher frequencies of oral hygiene habits (brushing, use of mouthwash, chewing gum and tongue cleaning). Lower mean bitter liking scores (18–21%) were seen with higher frequencies of oral hygiene habits (brushing, mouthwash use, floss use and chewing gum). Sweet liking scores varied by reported frequency of mouthwash use and flossing only, with mixed patterns of variance. Mean bitter and sweet intensity perception scores varied with the number of dental caries ((13–20% higher in those with 3 or more caries, compared to none).ConclusionsWhile there were numerous relationships identified between liking and perception of sweet and bitter and oral health outcomes, the magnitude and direction of associations varied by outcome. The direction of the associations cannot be inferred due to the cross-sectional nature of the study. The demonstrated relationships justify further future investigations, which could help better understand if taste liking and perception is impacted by oral hygiene and health, or vice versa. This could be important in understanding the causation and progression of oral health diseases or the development of novel therapeutics for oral health.

Exploring phenotypic differences in the remembered experience of odours: the effects of sweet liking.

Exploring phenotypic differences in the remembered experience of odours: the effects of sweet liking.