Swedish Navy Research Articles

Decision-making during training of a Swedish navy command and control team: a quantitative study of workload effects.

The study compared two simulation environments for training of Swedish naval Command and Control teams by using indirect measures, including workload, combat readiness, and situation awareness. The literature explains simulation-based training as providing a safe avenue to practice relevant scenarios. Fidelity, the degree of realism in the simulation, and workload, the equilibrium between demands and assigned tasks, are crucial factors examined in this study of low- and high-fidelity naval simulations. This study was conducted to better understand the effects of various training methods. An experimental design with repeated measures was used with three consecutive escalating parts. The subjective, multidimensional assessment tool, NASA-Task Load Index was used to rate perceived workload. Combat readiness of the ship and mental demand yielded significant results. For combat readiness of the ship, there was a difference between the low and the high-fidelity setting, for the initial part of the scenario p = 0.037 and for the second part p = 0.028. Mental demand was experienced as higher in the low-fidelity setting, p = 0.036. Notably, the simulated internal battle training for onboard command teams in a low-fidelity setting was found to induce a level of stress comparable with that experienced in a high-fidelity setting. The results indicate that low-fidelity training results in a workload not distinguishable from high-fidelity training and has practical implications for increased use of low-fidelity training as part of (naval) command team training programmes.

Neptunus and To Løver: An Archaeological, Archival, and Dendrochronological Survey of Two Danish Prize Ships, Scuttled in the Stockholm Archipelago in 1659

Abstract We report the archaeological survey, dendrochronological analysis, and archival research concerning two shipwrecks located in shallow waters outside Vaxholm in the Stockholm Archipelago, Baltic Sea. According to oral tradition, the two wrecks are the remains of Neptunus and To Løver, two former Danish warships that were taken as prizes at the battle of Fehmarn in 1644. The Swedish navy then used the two ships until 1659, when they were reportedly scuttled as a blockage along the sea route towards Stockholm. Before being intentionally scuttled, the two ships drifted away and sank. The work presented in this article confirms the substance of the tradition and reports that substantial portions of the two ships are preserved. Moreover, the two wrecks shed light on the scuttling process and the construction of an underwater barrier.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT SURVIVABILITY MEASURES ON A GENERIC FRIGATE

The authors are to be thanked for publishing results from their Swedish Navy funded work into frigate Survivability. Given the sensitivity of the subject, while there have been a lot of recently published articles on the topic of warship survivability, it is worthwhile to get a view from a navy still considering relatively small warships to be frigates. It is also very helpful to have a set of four “Survivability levels” (at end of Section 2.1) to gauge a design’s performance in this regard.

Political upheaval, external influences and domestic traditions: The emergence of the nineteenth-century Ålandic yacht

This article examines the emergence of the nineteenth-century Ålandic peasant yacht within the larger political, economic and social context of the central and northern Baltic Sea region. Through an analysis of the region's fluctuating and changing trading environment following the Finnish War of 1808–1809, it is demonstrated that the increasing uncertainty, as well as decreasing profitability, of previously stable trading relations provided the necessary impetus to change the traditional vessel design. Avenues for both foreign and domestic innovations are examined. In addition to exogenous influences, wherein the role of the Ålandic peasant sailors’ involvement in the Swedish navy is accentuated, the effects of the increasing smuggling activities of the archipelago's inhabitants and the competitive sailing environment that emerged during trading journeys are considered as factors that possibly affected shipbuilding. The results highlight the complex networks and processes through which innovations are generated, transmitted and adopted.

Baltic and east European shipbuilding influences in the Swedish Empire: tracing local and inter-regional shipbuilding traditions from the armed vessel Bodekull, built 1659-1661 and sunk 1678

Research in the Swedish military archives has revealed the identity of the ‘Edesö Wreck’ as the Bodekull belonging to the Swedish navy. The vessel was one of around 45 struss vessels ordered by King Karl X Gustav in 1659 to be used to transport troops and horses between the Danish isles. As a consequence of the king’s sudden death in January 1660 and the end of the war against Denmark, the semi-finished purpose-built invasion fleet was rebuilt into vessels for which the navy had better use. It is still possible, however, to trace the original design of the vessel through the preserved hull structure.

A Qualitative Study of Swedish Specialized Boarding Element Members’ Human Actions in Situations Perceived as New and/or Stressful after Participating in Long-Term Naval Hostile Deployment

Background: Sweden has been part of Operation Atalanta four times since 2009. Being part of an international naval deployment means acting in a substantially different context and environment. The Swedish Armed Forces leadership training includes the use of Wheelan’s IMGD model, whereby trust is a significant part of group dynamics. Materials and Methods: Interviews took place after deployment when the respondents had been back in Sweden for 8 months. The constant comparative analysis method according to Glaser was used to answer the aim of the study. Results: Trust was seen as the core of the interviews and was based on three categories: leadership, preparedness and endurance. Discussion: The core category trust, and the lack of trust, may be a result of poor preparedness. The respondents expressed that they felt safe and secure within their own group. The “us and them” mentality was an important finding, and the cause should be examined more closely to increase trust and team spirit. Conclusion: The Swedish Navy could benefit from improvement in education, team building and pre-deployment training to increase trust and the level of readiness and to reduce stress.

Synthetic aperture towed-array processing: The Edmund J Sullivan Legacy

Dr. Edmund J. Sullivan developed synthetic aperture towed-array processing. Confronted by many nay-sayers Dr. Sullivan persisted with his work and developed the first approach as the signal processing group leader (SPGL) at the SACLANT ASW Center (now CMRE) in La Spezia, Italy. The first notional passive synthetic aperture processor using an overlapped correlation method was jointly developed [“Extended Towed Array Processing by Overlapped Correlator,” (JASA, 1989)]. This idea was to blossom even further in his collaborative works (Stergiopolous et al.) extending these ideas to a fully, recursive (in-time) model-based passive-synthetic aperture processor [“Space-time array processing: A model-based approach” (JASA, 1997)]. He also began collaborations with the Swedish Navy where he performed joint experiments in model-based passive synthetic aperture evaluating its performance in the ocean and demonstrating its effectiveness. Dr. Sullivan began mentoring more researchers and teaching at the University of Rhode Island where he advised students in underwater acoustics and processing leading researchers to the model-based approach (Cousins), synthetic aperture processing (Edelson) [“On the performance of the overlap-correlator synthetic aperture technique” (JASA, 1991)] and broadband processing (Holmes) [“Broadband passive synthetic aperture” (JASA, 2006) ]. His ideas were summarized in his recent text, [Model-Based Processing for Underwater Acoustic Arrays (Springer, 2015)].Dr. Edmund J. Sullivan developed synthetic aperture towed-array processing. Confronted by many nay-sayers Dr. Sullivan persisted with his work and developed the first approach as the signal processing group leader (SPGL) at the SACLANT ASW Center (now CMRE) in La Spezia, Italy. The first notional passive synthetic aperture processor using an overlapped correlation method was jointly developed [“Extended Towed Array Processing by Overlapped Correlator,” (JASA, 1989)]. This idea was to blossom even further in his collaborative works (Stergiopolous et al.) extending these ideas to a fully, recursive (in-time) model-based passive-synthetic aperture processor [“Space-time array processing: A model-based approach” (JASA, 1997)]. He also began collaborations with the Swedish Navy where he performed joint experiments in model-based passive synthetic aperture evaluating its performance in the ocean and demonstrating its effectiveness. Dr. Sullivan began mentoring more researchers and teaching at the University of ...

Improved array weighting for short nested arrays

Often linear acoustic arrays are comprised of shorter nested subcomponent arrays cut for higher frequencies. This reduces costs and complexity by trading-off performance, specifically in resolution, SNR, and grating lobes. Typically each sub-aperture is processed individually, and the results incoherently combined over a frequency bandwidth of interest. Here several methods are shown superior to conventional bearing time records on measured at-sea data. Only methods that can be implemented in real-time and on low size, weight, and power systems are considered. Min and product array processing across the sub-apertures results are shown to have advantages, even though the nulls and grating lobes are not optimally coordinated. Finally, convex optimization methods are used to create array weights, over the entire irregularly spaced array. Stability is enforced via a regularization criteria added to the objective function. [Work Supported by ONR and the Royal Swedish Navy.]Often linear acoustic arrays are comprised of shorter nested subcomponent arrays cut for higher frequencies. This reduces costs and complexity by trading-off performance, specifically in resolution, SNR, and grating lobes. Typically each sub-aperture is processed individually, and the results incoherently combined over a frequency bandwidth of interest. Here several methods are shown superior to conventional bearing time records on measured at-sea data. Only methods that can be implemented in real-time and on low size, weight, and power systems are considered. Min and product array processing across the sub-apertures results are shown to have advantages, even though the nulls and grating lobes are not optimally coordinated. Finally, convex optimization methods are used to create array weights, over the entire irregularly spaced array. Stability is enforced via a regularization criteria added to the objective function. [Work Supported by ONR and the Royal Swedish Navy.]

How to transform peasants into seamen: The manning of the Swedish navy and a double-faced maritime culture

During the seventeenth century Sweden rapidly changed from a small insignificant country in Europe’s northern periphery to a great military power. The navy was a crucial part of the expansion, but to maintain a standing navy was a demanding task for a comparatively poor and sparsely populated country. One of many difficulties was to recruit skilled and competent seamen. Sweden had no large merchant fleet that could serve the navy with experienced men, and to hire professional crews would have been too expensive. The solution was to recruit poor men from the lower strata of society in coastal villages and towns through what is known as the allotment system (in Swedish: indelningsverket). Those men normally had very little experience of handling large sailing vessels but were soon trained for the task. Once conscripted in the navy they lived two lives. In the summer during the sailing season they were naval seamen. During winter they became farmhands, workers and craftsmen ashore. Thus they constructed a maritime culture of their own, with ideals and values that sometimes were closely linked to a broader maritime culture in Europe and sometimes had more in common with a Swedish rural community culture. This article investigates how this maritime/rural culture was shaped; to what extent the seamen adjusted themselves to a military order and finally what happened when the seamen’s values and ideas collided with the hierarchy and power relations within the navy.

Russian

Russian

The Safe and Economic Revival of Alkaline Hydrogen/Air Fuel Cells with Circulating Electrolytes, Recommended for Vehicles Using Battery Hybrid Systems and H2 from Ammonia Crackers

Alkaline Fuel Cells: The Bacon Fuel Cell, the Apollo NASA Space Shuttle and the Russian System. The Allis Chalmers Tractor,the Union Carbide GM-Electrovan, the Kordesch Hybrid Car, the Eloflux and the Elenco System and the European Space Power Plant for Hermes. Also: the Dornier-Siemens and the Swedish Navy System and Olle Lindstroems work. The fuel cells by Hoechst and von ZeTek. A bipolar system was built in Graz and at Apollo Energy Systems, Inc. 2 kW AFCs were tested with NH3. Liquified Ammonia can be converted to 75 % H2 and 25 % N2. The capacity by wt.and vol. of ammonia surpasses methanol. Ammonia is produced worldwide in several 100 million tons per year. Ammonia is available on farms. Refrigerators worked safely with ammonia. Internal Combustion Engines operate on cracked Ammoniamix with increased power and higher efficiency.

Air contaminants in a submarine equipped with air independent propulsion

The Swedish Navy has operated submarines equipped with air independent propulsion for two decades. This type of submarine can stay submerged for periods far longer than other non-nuclear submarines are capable of. The air quality during longer periods of submersion has so far not been thoroughly investigated. This study presents results for a number of air quality parameters obtained during more than one week of continuous submerged operation. The measured parameters are pressure, temperature, relative humidity, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter and microbiological contaminants. The measurements of airborne particles demonstrate that air pollutants typically occur at a low baseline level due to high air exchange rates and efficient air-cleaning devices. However, short-lived peaks with comparatively high concentrations occur, several of the sources for these have been identified. The concentrations of the pollutants measured in this study do not indicate a build-up of hazardous compounds during eight days of submersion. It is reasonable to assume that a substantial build-up of the investigated contaminants is not likely if the submersion period is prolonged several times, which is the case for modern submarines equipped with air independent propulsion.

An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden, 1569-1654, and: Scots in Habsburg Service, 1618-1648 (review)

Reviewed by: Scots in Habsburg Service, 1618–1648 Edward M. Furgol Scots in Habsburg Service, 1618–1648. By David Worthington. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004. ISBN 90-04-13575-8. Maps. Glossary. Appendixes. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Pp. xix, 330. $114.00. Alexis Grosjean has produced a magisterial piece transforming the previous analysis of Scots in military service to Sweden in the 1563-1654 period. Her research, spread throughout archives across northern Europe, indicates that the Scottish involvement in the Swedish armed forces lasted longer, and was more extensive, than historians have thought. Following the Reformation, Scotsmen seeking military employment shifted from France to Dutch and Swedish service. Grosjean tends to treat her subject in group terms, given its scope, while concentrating on important individuals. The book divides into two sections—the first (chapters one to five) dealing with Scots' assistance to Sweden (1563-1654), and the second (chapters six to eight) looking at Swedish help to the Scots (1638-50). As early as 1586 Sweden had 6,000 Scots in its armies. Already in 1574 a Scottish officer had been ennobled by the Swedes (social advancement being one of the attractions of serving them), and in 1578 the Swedes made the first land grants to Scots. Five years later a Scots officer was selected for the diplomatic service, an activity that remained common until the 1640s. By the 1590s Scots had become trusted sufficiently to command national troops. By the 1610s the Swedes no longer considered the Scots as mercenary troops, but as allies. Their presence during the Thirty Years' War was critical to Swedish success, both due to their numbers (between a quarter and a fifth of the officer corps and a fifth of the common soldiers), and the quality of their service (such as at Stralsund, Lützen, and Wittstock). Scots also performed an important role [End Page 1248] in the development of the Swedish navy. The rise of the Swedish empire would have been extremely difficult without the Scots. Consequently, when the Scottish Covenanters turned to Sweden for aid in 1638 they encountered a friendly power. The Swedish government released officers from the army to return home and train the Covenanter levies, and supplied them with military equipment and raw materials. The Covenanter triumphs against Charles I in the two Bishops' Wars would have proved difficult, if not impossible, without Sweden's overt and covert aid. Attempts at establishing a formal alliance between the two countries foundered in the complications of British politics during the mid-1640s. However, in 1650 former Scots officers negotiated military support from Sweden for Montrose's futile expedition. The subsequent collapse of Scottish power and growth of English might brought an end to the old relationship when Cromwell and Karl X formally allied in 1656. The new alliance closed an important chapter in northern European and military history. Like Grosjean, Worthington examined documents relating to the Scottish military diaspora in archives rarely cited by American and British scholars. He divides his book into three parts: an examination of Scots in continental Europe (outside France) before 1618, a study of Scots in Spanish Habsburg lands during 1618-48, then of Scots in Austrian Habsburg lands for the same period. These seventeenth century Scots were largely Roman Catholic, John Gordon standing out as a Calvinist. Unlike the hundreds of colonels and other officers in Swedish service, those in Habsburg forces numbered fewer than fifty. Apparently, some 7,000 Scots served as enlisted men with the Spanish (evidence for recruiting them is sparse); the number of common soldiers in the Austrian armies remains hard to determine. Equally significant was the lack of a merchant community from whom the Scots soldiers received financial backing, and with whom they intermarried as first generation settlers, both of which were common in Sweden. The other Scottish exiles, identified by Worthington, with which the soldiers associated were generally members of religious orders and priests. Consequently, the Scots failed to contribute an essential element of imperial construction and maintenance for the Habsburgs in the way they had done for Sweden. In the latter two sections Worthington fixes on two men (William Semple and Walter Leslie), not as exemplars or especially prominent...

Why the vasa sank: 10 problems and some antidotes for software projects

In 1628, the newest ship in the Royal Swedish Navy took its maiden voyage. After sailing about 1,300 meters, a light gust of wind caused the Vasa to capsize. The reasons that the Vasa was constructed to be unstable, and the reasons it was launched when known to be unstable, are as relevant to our modern-day attempts to build large, complex software systems as they were to the 17th-century art and craft of building warships. This article describes the problems encountered in that project, interprets them in terms of modern software projects, and presents some antidotes for those problems.

Stealth on the Water

The Swedish Navy’s Visby corvette is designed to be virtually invisible in pursuit of hostile submarines and underwater mines. The Visby is designed to be difficult to detect by an enemy using radar, infrared, hydro-acoustic monitoring or any other sensor system. The craft’s success could change naval warfare as profoundly as did the ironclad ships in the 19th century. Sweden’s YS2000 class corvette, the first known production naval stealth vessel, takes shape at Kockums’ shipyard on Karlskrona Island. The Kockums shipwrights designed the Visby to be electronically undetectable at a range greater than 13 km in rough seas, and at more than 22 km in calm seas, without electronic jamming. With the assistance of jamming, the Visby is invisible at more than 8 km in rough waters and 11 km in a calm sea. Computing Devices Canada also designed a monitoring system so that the Visby can perform a background check on its own vibration levels to ensure that the ship’s sound is within acceptable levels.

The Regal Ships and Divine Kingdom

This paper deals with the use of old, preserved ships as ship symbols in society. Emanating from this is also a special treatment of the projection of the symbolism of the "regal ship" in Swedish society since the 17th century. 'Regal ship" was a denomination, during the 17th century, of big, sailing warships in the Swedish navy. In this connection is also traced and discussed the ideology adhering to the symbolic expressions around the "regal ships" in past and present society.

Time Capsule from the 17th Century: Stockholm’s Vasa Museum

Exhibit Review TIME CAPSULE FROM THE 17TH CENTURY: STOCKHOLM’S VASA MUSEUM JOHN G. ARRISON In the 17th century Sweden was one of Europe’s great powers, whose expanding boundaries made the Baltic almost a Swedish sea. Sweden’s territories included not only Finland but also the lands around the Gulf of Finland and parts of Germany and Poland as well. Sweden’s copper and iron mines became the primary source of raw materials to fill Europe’s demand for large guns. Sweden’s navy played a key role in the country’s growth, and the royal warship Vasa was to be the pride of that navy. But the ship met with disaster in 1628, foundering in Stockholm harbor on its maiden voyage. Three-andone -half centuries later, however, the Vasa stands marvelously resur­ rected, the centerpiece for the most popular museum in Scandinavia. Built on the shore of Stockholm’s Djurgarden, the Vasa Museum serves as a monument to Sweden’s past eminence. The story of the Vasa is not one of romantic grandeur, and the ship itself does not have the traditional characteristics of a national relic. It is more an archetype for the failures of modern government contract­ ing—poor communication, frequent change orders, cost overruns, missed deadlines, and high-level inquiries. As the Vasa was being built and outfitted between 1625 and 1628, King Gustavus II Adolfus, “Lion of the North,” was on the Continent fighting his Catholic cousin, King Sigismund of Poland, over rights to the Swedish throne. A strong navy was essential to the logistics of a war across the Baltic, but in the three years of the Vasa’s construction the Swedish navy lost twelve large vessels, primarily due to storms. In an effort to buttress his naval power, the king ordered a number of changes to the Vasa—greater length and breadth, more guns, and heavier guns. A ship possibly designed with one gun deck ended up with Mr. Arrison is a naval architect and Hagley Fellow at the University of Delaware. His dissertation on labor and technology in 20th-century shipbuilding stems from past work at Bath Iron Works and as curator of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Hart Nautical Collections.© 1994 by the Society for the History of Technology. All rights reserved. 0040-165X794/3501 -0007$01.00 158 Time Capsule from the 17th Century: Stockholm’s Vasa Museum 159 two, carrying sixty-four guns, including forty-eight 24-pounders. The resulting ship was top-heavy; ballasted so heavily that the lower gunports were dangerously close to the waterline, it was still too shallow to hold sufficient ballast to remain stable in a strong breeze. Yet the Vasa still reflected the glory of the royal family. It had an overall length of 69 meters, an 11.7-meter beam, and a displacement of 1,210 tons.1 The Vasa made its ceremonial maiden voyage on Sunday, Au­ gust 10, 1628. On board were 100 crewmen plus wives and children. All of Stockholm was watching. The ship had gone little more than 1 kilometer when a gust of wind filled the four set sails. It heeled over, the lower gunports on the lee side began taking water, and the Vasa sank in 35 meters of water. About fifty lives were lost. For spectators and victims alike, the loss of the Vasa was not unlike the disaster of the space shuttle Challenger. Early attempts at salvage proved fruitless, with the sole exception of an effort mounted by Albreckt von Treileben, a Swede, and a German named Andreas Peckell. In 1664 and 1665, using a simple diving bell, they succeeded in recovering more than fifty of the Vasa’s heavy guns. For almost 300 years after that, the Vasa remained forgotten. Then, in the 1950s, Anders Franzen began researching the ship and succeeded in locating it on August 25, 1956. The subsequent “Save the Vasa" campaign marshaled all the forces of national pride, bringing to­ gether the government, private enterprise, foundations, and indi­ viduals throughout Sweden. After an expensive and risky salvage effort, the Vasa broke the surface on April 24, 1961. Though badly damaged, the hull was whole and floatable because...

June 1990: a new museum for Sweden's famed Vasa warship

In No. 142 Museum reported on the extraordinary fate of the Wasa—pride of the Swedish navy, but which capsized on her maiden trip in 1628, lost for more than four centuries in the depths of Stockholm harbour, located by a private researcher, Anders Franzén in 1956, and housed in a temporary museum since 1962.Now called the Vasa (‘V’ has replaced ‘W’ in contemporary Swedish usage), she is housed in a brand new museum on the island of Djurgården in Stockholm, scheduled for inauguration in mid‐June 1990.The new Vasa Museum was designed by the Swedish architects Göran Månsson and Marianne Dahlbäck, and can be described as a large, soft‐copper tent. In this most unusual building one can see the large, dark ship from seven different levels. Exhibitions will visualize the ship and its history, the people who built and manned her and Swedish society at that time. The Vasa's lower masts, of which two are original, will be stepped.Visitors may walk through a full‐size copy of the upper gun‐deck, complete with gun‐carriages, equipment and crew or gather knowledge about the ship through a computer.

Studies in oral galvanism: mercury and copper levels in urine, blood and saliva in submerged electrically cutting divers.

The aim of the study was to analyse the concentration levels of mercury and copper in urine, blood/blood plasma and saliva in relation to intra-oral electrical activity. Five Swedish Navy divers took part in the study in order to determine whether working submerged with electrical cutting equipment produced changes in the presence and level of oral galvanism and whether this posed a serious occupational health risk. The investigation concluded that the risk of seriously increased intra-oral electrical activity during welding or cutting activities was small. Development of the study is suggested, with long-term sampling of urine and blood samples of divers supported.

Submarine Power Systems Using the V4-275R Stirling Engine

The Stirling power module V4-275R, integrated with a liquid oxygen system, is currently built for submarines for the Royal Swedish Navy and for the offshore company Comex in France. Since mid 1985 the Stirling engine system for the Swedish Navy has been successfully tested in a full-scale submarine test section. The next step in this programme will be an integration of the Stirling system into an operational Swedish submarine. A contract has been signed having Kockums as the main contractor. The French programme means a 500 ton manned diver lock-out submarine, the SAGA I, which is under final construction at Comex in Marseille. The energy system for the SAGA submarine consists of two V4–275R Stirling engines of maximum 100 kW power each. The oxygen storage, manufactured by AGA Cryo in Gothenburg, consists of two liquid oxygen tanks providing a total capacity of 10000 kWh, allowing the submarine to perform missions of up to 14 days submerged.