Swazi Nation Land Research Articles

Deprivation of Land Tenure to Daughters of Mother Earth

The judicial system in Eswatini operates on the basis of Roman-Dutch common law and Swazi customary law and administers land occupancy through the dual landholding system of freehold title and Swazi nation land. Tenure over Swazi nation land is governed by Swazi customary law and not defined by legislation. Instead, land is controlled and held in trust by the King and is allocated by chiefs according to traditional non-codified provisions. Whilst Section 211 of the Swazi Constitution (2005) provides that “a citizen of Swaziland, without regard to gender, shall have equal access to land for normal domestic purposes”, traditional leaders, who routinely run the administration of the Swazi nation land and customary land tenure, often ignore it. Ordinarily, only male household heads are eligible to secure land through the customary process known as “kukhonta” that initiates males into the chiefdom and marks their commitment and allegiance to the chief. Under Swazi law and custom, a women can only be granted land rights by the chief through her husband, male relatives, or male children. This paper argues that women are alienated from the land rights that Mother Earth has bequeathed to all humanity despite the similarities of women’s lived experiences and that of the environment. Three (3) scenarios found through library research are cited as examples of Swati women’s lived experiences with regard to land accessibility. The paper concludes by noting that the implementation of Agenda 2030 for sustainable development, and particularly Sustainable Development Goal number 5 (SDG 5), which is geared towards establishing gender equality and empowering all women and girls, can amongst other initiatives be achieved through equal land rights granted to all the children of Mother Earth. However, unless and until societal constructs on land acquisition and ownership are reinterpreted, Emaswati women will continue to receive only the breadcrumbs that fall from the master’s table.

The impact of the 2015-16 El Nino drought on the irrigated home gardens of the Komati downstream development project, Swaziland

ABSTRACT Swaziland was affected severely by the 2015–16 El Nino drought, which severely affected agriculture and food security. Of special interest to this paper is its impact on irrigated home gardens on the Komati Downstream Development Project. This project was designed to extend irrigated sugar cane onto customary tenured Swazi Nation Land, with a secondary objective to improve food security by enabling farmers to convert some land from rain-fed to irrigated maize and vegetable production. A random questionnaire survey was undertaken on three farmers’ associations of the KDDP which have adopted irrigated home gardens, sampling approximately 50 per cent of those eligible. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with committee members of the associations. The paper concludes that unlike previous droughts where the gardens enabled farmers to produce food at a time when rain-fed production had collapsed, in the 2015–16 drought, the impact on water supplies was so great that the irrigated gardens also failed, compromising the food security of the farmers and their neighbours. It also appears that a significant number of farmers are beginning to question the long-term viability of their current farm system in the face of what many perceive as long-term changes in the regional climate.

Collective Action For Access To Inputs, Finance, Markets And Extension For Smallholder Farmers In Eswatini

Smallholder farmers’ access to inputs, finance, markets and extension is key to their success and contribution to rural development. In a study that was conducted in the Hhohho region of Eswatini, with a snowballed sample of 82 smallholders, it was found that most smallholder farmers are elderly women who generally had low levels of education. They predominantly held land that is less than 1 ha which was on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). Even those who were part of farmer groups operated as individuals, since group committees had difficulties in managing the groups. Farmers who had export market contracts were more likely to access bank finance, while those with NAMBoard market contracts were not. However, grouped farmers were more likely to access NAMBoard marketing contracts and extension services. The results suggest that collective operation for farmers is key to market and extension access but not finance. Therefore, as much as extension officers (EOs) should encourage and assist smallholders to form formal groups like cooperatives, they still need to go further to create strategies to assist the farmer cooperatives to raise capital. Cooperatives can raise capital through joining fees and shares, but the traditional cooperatives are inefficient in raising additional capital from capital endowed members and strategic partners later on in their life. This creates a niche for hybrid cooperatives, which are efficient in this regard. Thus, there is an urgent need to train EOs on the development of cooperatives and equally lobby for legislative innovations. This may allow the development of efficient cooperatives and improve the viability and sustainability of farmers. Keywords: Access to markets, Cooperatives, Institutions, Role of extension, Smallholders

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Selected Herbicides on Weed Biomass Control and Maize [<i>Zea mays</i> (L.)] Yield Production in Two Agro-ecological Zones in Swaziland

Maize is the most important food crop in Swaziland, and is produced by over 90% of smallholder farmers on Swazi Nation Land. Excluding environmental variables, yield losses in maize are caused mainly by competition from weeds. Herbicidal weed control is a promising way to control weeds at initial stages of crop growth with the appropriate choice and rate of herbicides. An experiment was conducted at the Malkerns Research Station and Mangcongco experimental site during the 2014/2015 cropping season. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of available herbicides for weed control and maize grain yield. There were 16 treatments; Four herbicides were used; Bladex Plus, Gardomil Gold, Lumax and 2,4-D Amine 480. Four rates of application were used; Control (hand-weeding), rate of recommendation based on the % clay content in the soil, half and full the rate recommended by the local retailers. A randomised complete block design (RCBD) experiment in a factorial arrangement, replicated four times was used. Highest efficacy of broadleaves in Malkerns was 97% when the herbicide Lumax at the rate recommended as per % clay content in the soil and in Mangcongco it was 76% with the use of herbicide Gardomil Gold at the full rate recommended by retailers. Weed control efficiencies for grasses in both sites at all rates were negative. Gardomil Gold was efficient in controlling sedges in both sites, at the full rate of the retailer’s recommendation (60%) in Malkerns and at half the rate recommended by retailers (28%) in Mangcongco. In Malkerns the highest grain yield was 8741 kg/ha with the treatment 2,4-D Amine 480 at the full rate recommended by retailers. In Mangcongco, the highest grain yield was 4427 kg/ha with the treatment Bladex Plus at the rate recommended based on % clay content in the soil. The highest grain yield in Malkerns was 8741 kg/ha when 2,4-D Amine 480 was used, at full rate recommended by retailer’s (2 L/ha). While in Mangcongco, Bladex Plus, at the rate based on the % clay content in the soil (4.3 L/ha) had the highest yield of 4427 kg/ha. Hence herbicides and rates with higher yields are recommended for each site.

Factors influencing the use of alternative land cultivation technologies in Swaziland: Implications for smallholder farming on customary Swazi Nation Land

Poor land preparation and late planting are among the factors responsible for the decline in food production on customary Swazi Nation Land (SNL). While efforts are being made to develop an improved national land cultivation programme, this process can be helped by identifying factors that influence farmers to use alternative technologies for land cultivation. Using cross-section data collected in 2009 from a random sample of 210 farmers in Komati, three land cultivation technologies were identified; (i) use of tractors; (ii) use of draught animals; and (iii) use of hand hoes. For a country like Swaziland where human health problems, particularly HIV/AIDS, make manual labour a scarce resource, the use of tractors is regarded as a modern technology that can achieve time and labour savings. The empirical evidence from this study indicates that the use of tractors is significantly influenced by household wealth and size of arable land used by households. However, given that land holdings on customary land are generally small, sparsely distributed and often fragmented, tractor hire service providers face relatively high overhead and transaction costs. Furthermore, investment in mechanised farming by individual SNL households is constrained by the lack of secure tenure. Given these challenges, this study makes recommendations for creating an enabling environment that could promote the adoption of improved land cultivation methods by smallholders on customary SNL.

English

  Maize farming in Swaziland is divided into subsistence farming on Swazi Nation Land (SNL) and commercial farming on Title Deed Land (TDL). Maize production on SNL accounts for only 10% of total agricultural output in Swaziland. While almost all households in SNL produce maize, the country has never reached self-sufficient levels in maize production. For the past 40 years, Swaziland has not been able to meet the population’s maize requirements. Currently, the domestic shortfalls of maize are covered by imports through the National Maize Corporation. Swaziland continues to experience a downward trend on maize production, while maize demand has been increasing. This study was aimed at estimating technical efficiency of maize production and determining the factors affecting technical efficiency in Swaziland. The stochastic frontier approach was used to estimate the technical efficiency of 127 farmers and the two-limit Tobit model was used to determine the factors affecting technical efficiency of the farmers. The results revealed that there is a wide variability in the production of maize since technical efficiency ranged from 14.5 to 93.3% with a mean of 80.0%. The most important contributors to the maize production process were the amount of seeds, fertilizer, pesticides and labour used per hectare. Technical efficiency was found to be positively associated with farmers’ age, having off-farm income, farmers’ experience, intercropping and use of hybrid seeds. The gamma, (γ), was 68% and significant at 1% indicating that the variation in maize output was due to factors within the control of the farmers. It is recommended that the government needs to provide input subsidies so that farmers can use more inputs to improve their technical efficiency.   Key words: Technical efficiency, maize production, stochastic frontier function, Cobb-Douglas production.

Factors influencing investment in commercial pig production on Swazi nation land

Commercial pig production in Swaziland is one viable enterprise that has not been fully exploited by rural farmers despite the level of support from Government, private sector and international agencies. The aim of this study was to identify the factors influencing household decisions to invest in commercial pig production on Swazi Nation Land, using Lubombo region as a case study. Following a systematic sampling procedure, 124 households were interviewed to identify variables that influence their decisions on whether or not to invest in commercial pig production. Using a binary logistic regression model the analytical results revealed that the decisions are significantly influenced by gender of household head, level of education, employment status, household size, frequency of contact with extension officers and the proximity of a reliable water source. In terms of key policy interventions, the study underlined the importance of increasing investment in water harvesting projects and improving the Piggery extension service. Future interventions in the agriculture sector should not overlook the role played by women in pursuing the goal of achieving household food security through agricultural production.Key words: Swazi Nation Land, commercial, investment, pig production, food security

Reaching Swazi Nation Land Farmers: Challenges to the Credibility of Agricultural Extension in Swaziland

Agricultural extension services have been availed to SNL farmers in Swaziland for seven decades now. However, increasing concerns that the services have not contributed significantly to the improvement of the conditions and well-being of farmers and that it is not clear where extension efforts are heading point to a mounting credibility problem. The paper points out that this problem is partly a result of lack of a clearly defined philosophy, often leading to the use of top-down, directive methods; the extension job being male dominated and gender stereotyping; and most of the frontline extension workers being youthful, moderately experienced in their job and relatively lowly qualified. It also notes that institutions conventionally mandated to disseminate agricultural information are poorly regarded by clientele and that extension staffing is poor, leading to inequitable and infrequent coverage. Extension approaches are based on operational myths that tend to marginalise and disempower tradition oriented clientele. The agricultural extension service has been found to be generally weak in addressing its mandate. The paper highlights the need for a paradigm shift and clear definition of direction, with implications for addressing the operational myths and seeking redress.

Constraints to the advancement of small scale Swazi women Entrepreneurs

The study identified the constraints to the advancement of small-scale women entrepreneurs in Swaziland. The constraints covered include access to land, access to capital, marriage laws, mourning rituals, maintenance and business policies. Data were collected through face-toface interview. The interview was directed to both small and medium scale women entrepreneurs. A panel of experts from the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Swaziland; Business Women Association and Women and Law in Southern Africa validated the instrument. The instrument was pre-tested with women entrepreneurs in Bhunya and Malkerns towns. The respondents identified the following as constraints to their progress from small to medium scale business: business policies; mourning rituals; access to capita and access to land. Suggestions for overcoming the constraints include: land should be accessible to any one who needs it; financial institutions should consider making more loans available to women entrepreneurs on no collateral basis; and maintenance orders must be enforced like any other civil judgment. However, the respondents indicated disagreement with the suggestions that Swazi Nation Land should be sold and mourning rituals should be abolished. Further, the respondents indicated that the availability of initial capital and current capital and initial credit contributed significantly to the performance of the business. The study recommended that since access to capital contributed significantly to the performance of the business, the government and relevant agencies need to steep up efforts in helping women entrepreneurs overcome the constraints hindering their advancement in business. 1 Department of Home Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Swaziland, P/B Luyengo, Luyengo, M205, Swaziland 2 Hillside High School, Manzini, Swaziland

Cattle Performance and Nutritive Value of Pastures on Swazi Nation Land

Pasture samples and animal data were collected from 3 areas representing the agro-ecological zones in Swaziland. The crude protein content (CP) was similar in all regions and there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in CP content between the wet and dry seasons. The overall mean dry matter yield for the Highveld (1.56 tons/ha) was significantly (P0.05) in magnesium content of the pasture among the regions. However, mean calcium levels were significantly (P0.05) difference between the Highveld and the Middleveld. The mean P content for the Middleveld (1.23 ppm) was significantly (P0.05) difference between the Highveld and the Lowveld. NDF content was significantly (P0.05) difference between the Middleveld and the Lowveld. Digestibility values were similar in all the regions. In all the regions both steers and heifers had a significantly (P

A Mammal Survey of the Lower Usuthu Basin, Swaziland

The Lower Usuthu River Basin is set in the lowveld of Swaziland. The predominant vegetation types are mixed broadleaf woodland in the western lowveld and Acacia savanna in the eastern lowveld. The mammalian fauna of the Lower Usuthu Basin has been poorly documented. The study set out to survey mammals of the Lower Usuthu Basin using appropriate sampling techniques. A total of 45 species of mammals were recorded, or presumed to occur, in the study area, of which 10 species are of special conservation status both within Swaziland and in the southern african region. On Swazi Nation Land, species diversity and population sizes of mammals, especially the antelopes, were very low. Large-scale reduction of habitat may affect the conservation status of many mammals in the Lower Usuthu Basin. UNISWA Research Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology Vol. 4 (1) 2000: pp 55-61

REACHING SWAZI NATION LAND FARMERS: CHALLENGES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN SWAZILAND K.J.B. Keregero Department of Agriculture Education and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture UNIVERSITY OF SWAZILAND, LUYENGO M205, SWAZILAND

Agricultural extension services have been availed to Swazi Nation Land (SNL) farmers for seven decades now. However, increasing concern that the services have not contributed significantly to the improvement of the conditions and wellbeing of farmers points to a mounting credibility problem. The paper reflects on various studies that have been undertaken in the country and argues that the threat to the credibility of agricultural extension lies in: myths associated with extension behaviour; characteristics of agricultural extension workers; sources of agricultural extension knowledge; extension staffing and coverage; approach used by extension workers; and characteristics of extension clientele. The key observations are that: extension practice has ignored indigenous knowledge; the extension job is male dominated and gender stereotyped; extension workers are relatively lowly qualified and only moderately experienced; conventionally recognised sources of agricultural information are poorly regarded by clientele; community meetings have not been successfully utilised for extension; women who constitute the majority as cultivators of the land are not directly recognised as extension clientele; and rural people tend to portray mutual distrust in interpersonal relations. The agricultural extension service is generally weak in addressing its mandate, and calls for review in order to seriously address its credibility problem. (UNISWA J Agric: 2000 9: 79-89)

Land Alienation, Ownership Rights and Indigenous Power Relations in Swaziland.

Land bears enormous social, economic, cultural and political significance in present-day Swaziland. Duality in land tenure exists in the form of the traditional communal system which is practised on Swazi Nation Land (SNL), and the individual modern system that operates on Individual Tenure Farms (ITF). A historical perspective on the evolution of land tenure systems in the country is given. The land tenure and indigenous empowerment structures are examined in terms of existing land rights and the hierarchy of land controlling and allocating communities and their contribution to the indigenous power relations on SNL. The implications of these structures on the rights of women to land and their empowerment is discussed. The emerging power of indigenous Swazi landowners is highlighted. Key observations are that: SNL constitutes about 60% of the land in Swaziland; the traditional land tenure system has concentrated land controlling and allocating powers in the hands of a traditional aristocracy that operates at national through homestead levels; power is exercised through the Swazi Nation, chiefdoms, wards and homesteads; access to land is through the right of avail which is a general right held by the community as a whole, but in which every member automatically participates; access to land is influenced by gender, and is in favour of empowering men than women; indigenous Swazis are gradually obtaining access to individual tenure land, with increasing opportunities for women to own land; indigenous landowners have generally maintained their relationships with the traditional power structure; and the problem of squatters and tenants is a reflection of the disempowering consequences of land alienation. Review of Southern African Studies Volume 3 No. 1 June 1999, pp. 60-100

Feeding strategies for sustainable cattle production

Cattle play a pivotal role in the social and economic welfare of the Swazi people. The major challenge however, is how to ensure that cattle production continues to meet the needs of the present Swazi generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This article describes the characteristics of the cattle production environment on Swazi nation land (SNL), highlighting the linkage between the production environment and cattle productivity. The article singles out nutrition as the most important factor limiting cattle productivity on SNL, and yet in Swaziland, it argues, there exist vast feed resources that are unused or poorly utilised and could make a major impact on cattle production. It then goes on to present an analytical framework for a feeding strategy that ensures sustainable cattle production – a strategy that mobilises all the feed resources in the country. This strategy is supported by research data from feeding trials involving feeds available in Swaziland. The study shows that there is need to develop low-cost feeding packages utilising crop residues and agro-industrial by-products especially for winter-feeding, and to adopt integrated farming systems in which livestock production complements crop production for efficient and sustainable use of resources and environment protection. UNISWA Jnl of Agric Vol 8 1999: pp 31-38

Geographic distribution patterns of small mammals in Swaziland in relation to abiotic factors and human land-use activity

Swaziland is a small, topographically diverse southern Africa country whose mammalian fauna has been poorly studied. The distributions of small mammals in Swaziland were surveyed at 39 localities. A total of 15 species of rodents and ten species of insectivores were captured during the survey. The number of species of insectivore captured at a locality was positively correlated with mean annual rainfall, while the number of rodent species captured was negatively correlated with altitude. The number of rodent species captured was lower on Swazi Nation Land compared with privately owned land or protected land (reserves). This was probably due to the radical habitat alteration that had taken place on Swazi Nation Land, inter alia overgrazing by livestock, cultivation of maize and deforestation. The effect of this habitat alteration on the number of rodent species was more pronounced in high-lying areas of Swaziland. This may have been due to the fact that a large number of the rodent species inhabiting high-lying areas require thick, tall grassland habitats, whereas many of the low-lying species prefer more open habitats with less grass cover. Since grazing acts to reduce grass cover, it is suggested that the species inhabiting high-lying areas would be more affected by overgrazing, than low-lying species.

Distributional patterns and conservation status of mammals of Swaziland, southern Africa

Distributional patterns (mapped at the quarter-degree square scale) of species richness of 121 species of mammals recorded from Swaziland were examined in relation to the distribution of protected areas (reserves), privately-owned ranches and six vegetation types. The richness of mammal species was highest in the NE and NW, and lowest in the SW areas of Swaziland. Total mammal species richness was positively and highly significantly correlated with the presence of reserves. Similar patterns were shown by artiodactyls, rodents and carnivores. Total mammal species richness, as well as for most mammalian orders, was positively correlated with moist grassveld and moist savanna vegetation types but negatively correlated with dry grassveld. Mammal species richness, especially for the larger species, was very low on Swazi Nation Land, which covers about 60 of the country. The mammalian fauna of the high-lying areas (Highveld) was distinct from that of the low-lying areas (Lowveld). The Middleveld region supported elements of both Highveld and Lowveld species. A large proportion (87.6 ) of Swaziland's mammal species have been recorded from reserves. Two species {Alcelaphus lichtensteini and Lycaon pictus) no longer occur in Swaziland. For effective conservation of Swaziland's mammals, the issue of how to maintain viable populations on Swazi Nation Land will have to be addressed.

Managing Green Revolution Technology: An Analysis of a Differential Practice Combination in Swaziland

Previous articleNext article No AccessManaging Green Revolution Technology: An Analysis of a Differential Practice Combination in SwazilandGanesh P. Rauniyar and Frank M. GoodeGanesh P. Rauniyar Search for more articles by this author and Frank M. Goode Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Economic Development and Cultural Change Volume 44, Number 2Jan., 1996 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/452221 Views: 6Total views on this site Citations: 7Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1996 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Prem Bhandari, Dirgha Ghimire Rural Agricultural Change and Individual Out-migration, Rural Sociology 81, no.44 (May 2016): 572–600.https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12106M.L. Mabuza, M.M. Sithole, E. Wale, G.F. Ortmann, M.A.G. Darroch Factors influencing the use of alternative land cultivation technologies in Swaziland: Implications for smallholder farming on customary Swazi Nation Land, Land Use Policy 33 (Jul 2013): 71–80.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.12.009Prem Bhandari, Dirgha Ghimire Rural Agricultural Change and Fertility Transition in Nepal, Rural Sociology 78, no.22 (Feb 2013): 229–252.https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12007Madan M. Dey, Ferdinand J. Paraguas, Patrick Kambewa, Diemuth E. Pemsl The impact of integrated aquacultureâagriculture on small-scale farms in Southern Malawi, Agricultural Economics 41, no.11 (Jan 2010): 67–79.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2009.00426.xMichael E. Johnson*, William A. Masters Complementarity and sequencing of innovations: new varieties and mechanized processing for cassava in West Africa, Economics of Innovation and New Technology 13, no.11 (Jan 2004): 19–31.https://doi.org/10.1080/1043859042000156011Ganesh P. Rauniyar Adoption of management and technological practices by fishpond operators in Nepal, Aquaculture Economics & Management 2, no.33 (Dec 1998): 89–99.https://doi.org/10.1080/13657309809380221Catherine M. Marquette, Francisco Pichón Survival Strategies among Rural Swazi Households: Historical, Ecological and Social Dimensions, Forum for Development Studies 24, no.22 (Jan 1997): 307–320.https://doi.org/10.1080/08039410.1997.9666064

Promoting local capital: the role of the small enterprise development corporation (SEDCO) in Swaziland

Major reported that those Swazi-owned enterprises which did exist were mainly confined to trading and transport businesses and to handicraft operations located on so-called Swazi Nation Land, that is, the one-third of the total land area reserved for exclusive occupation by Swazi nationals.2 Major estimated that the number of such small businesses owned by Swazis in 1968 varied from 200 to 500. Outside of the SNL, Major found the commercial and industrial sectors to be foreign owned. The Swazi economy continues to this day to be dominated by foreign capital but with the difference that since independence South African capital has displaced British capital and now occupies the primary position in every sector of the economy, except for the important sugar sector. There British capital still predominates.3 The Swazi economy can be described as a dependent, peripheral one with South Africa as the core. Swaziland is economically tied to South Africa through the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Common Monetary

Fuelwood scarcity in Swaziland

SYNOPSIS In Swaziland policies to alleviate fuelwood shortages have been low on the list of development priorities, as much of the land has extensive bush and tree cover. There are, however, major social and geographical imbalances in biomass resource supply—some areas of Swazi Nation Land are barren due to increasing population pressure and the subsequent demand for fuelwood. This paper will show, in detail, the methodology for the survey which was carried out in Swaziland to investigate the importance of accessibility in linking potential supply to demand. Physical location, land tenure and management practices are generally recognised as important factors to take into consideration when converting potential resources into realistic amounts of fuelwood supply. Guesswork, however, is often used to estimate the impacts of these factors on biomass supplies. A nation-wide study was made in order to obtain more information on the accessibility of resources on privately owned land; results of a household surv...

Factors influencing the reduction of maize acreage on Swazi Nation Land

Swaziland has been pursuing self-sufficiency in maize by means of agronomic improvements, import licensing and an official maize price policy. Yet over the last decade, maize acreage has been declining and self-sufficiency seems more remote than ever. This paper investigates this paradox of policy using behavioural evidence gained from farmers in maximum input rural development areas. This evidence supports hypotheses of price responsiveness, labour shortage, high opportunity costs of maize production and a lack of access to the main commercial buyer for maize. There is unexpected evidence that customary land tenure on Swazi Nation Land is not always perceived as secure and that farmers who feel some insecurity tend to reduce their maize acreage more than those who feel secure. All evidence taken together suggests that a lack of attention to the post-production system and the economic environment to the production system are jeopardizing the agronomic efforts to attain self-sufficiency.