Sustainable Palm Oil Production Research Articles

Palm Oil Yield Prediction using Machine Learning

This project aims to revolutionize palm oil production by leveraging machine learning techniques to develop a predictive model for palm oil yield. By incorporating a wide range of variables such as climate conditions, soil characteristics, and cultivation techniques, the model seeks to provide accurate predictions to stakeholders in the palm oil industry. The ultimate goal is to empower farmers and decision-makers with a tool that can enhance decision-making processes and contribute to the overall sustainability of palm oil production. With the global demand for palm oil on the rise, the need for precision and efficiency in cultivation practices has never been more critical, making this project timely and impactful.

Palm Oil Sustainability: Current and Further Potential Research to Adopt Sustainable Development Goals 2030

The issue of sustainability in the palm oil industry is frequently discussed due to its significant impacts and benefits for society. This research aims to examine the current state of palm oil sustainability research and suggest potential areas for future research. A systematic literature review approach is used to select relevant articles on the sustainability of palm oil production. The study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) framework to identify relevant articles, which are then analysed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. VOSViewer is employed to analyse the bibliographic data of these articles, helping identify potential future research directions based on author keywords. This study has successfully categorized 532 articles from the Scopus database that directly relate to the sustainability of the palm oil industry. The results of the qualitative and quantitative analyses indicate that in recent years, based on their keywords, research trends are moving towards circular economy, biodiversity, tropical agriculture, policy, and palm oil clinker. Judging from the majority of cited articles, future research trends are recommended to focus on productivity aspects, the development of palm oil derivative products, and supply chain performance for the sustainability of the palm oil industry.

Regenerative Agriculture

There is an emerging trend towards adoption of regenerative agriculture which is perceived to be more sustainable than conventional agricultural production. This paper introduces the concept, definition and principles of regenerative agriculture and its relevance to the oil palm industry. While there is apparent overlapping of best management practices (BMPs) for sustainable agriculture and regenerative agriculture, the regenerative agriculture philosophy has a stronger focus and emphasis on soil health, the soil-water nexus, biodiversity and integration with livestock. Sustainable agriculture and regenerative agriculture should be regarded as complementary systems and they should not be mutually exclusive. Building on the progress made in sustainable production of palm oil through the various certification systems, growers and supply chain actors should consider opportunities for improvements by adopting regenerative agriculture practices. Keywords: Regenerative agriculture, sustainable agriculture, BMPs, soil health, regenagri.

Trade Competitiveness and Sustainability Policies of Malaysian Palm Oil in the European Union: Strategic Responses by Stakeholders Agencies

The Malaysian palm oil industry is a significant contributor towards national development and economic growth. However, the industry has been facing rising tension to ensure sustainable development, as global demand for palm oil continue to grow in the coming years. The necessity for producing and trading sustainably produced palm oil is amplified with the European Union’s stringent requirement for importing responsibly sourced commodities into its market, with the aim to achieve climateneutral by 2050. The palm oil industry is also inundated with anti-palm oil campaigns and agendas, which emphasize allegations of unsustainable agricultural practices as large-scale plantations damage the natural ecosystem in producing countries. Collectively, these challenges could pose a formidable impact on the trade of palm oil between Malaysia and the European Union. Therefore, the article seeks to examine the strategic responses undertaken by Malaysian stakeholder agencies to address the regulations pertaining to sustainable production of palm oil. Using a qualitative approach, a total of ten sessions of in-depth interviews were held with expert informants in stakeholder agencies, both in Malaysia and the European Union. Among the key findings were the formulation and implementation of the National Agricommodity Policy, deployment of various missions to the European Union, implementation of Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification as the national sustainability scheme, dissemination of accurate information on sustainable and certified palm oil, and continuous engagement through bilateral and multilateral platforms. Based on the findings, this study suggests that inclusive and transparent engagement must be conducted continuously. Constantly held dialogue sessions will help to promote better understanding and fruitful collaboration among stakeholder agencies in Malaysia and the European Union to balance environmental concerns with trade interests.

Soil Fertilization with Palm Oil Mill Effluent Has a Short-Term Effect on the Bacterial Diversity of an Amazonian Agricultural Land Area.

Palm oil derived from the fruits of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. has global economic importance and is largely produced in tropical regions. The palm oil production process leads to a highly polluting waste called palm oil mill effluent (POME). A strategy commonly used by producers to overcome environmental issues and to improve soil fertility is the reuse of POME as a fertilizer due to the chemical and biological characteristics of the effluent. In this research, three groups were analyzed: soil without POME application (control group) and soil samples after 4 and 9 days of POME application. An environmental DNA metabarcoding approach was used. eDNA was extracted, and the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced in the Illumina MiSeq platform. The abundance of Proteobacteria (48.1%) and Firmicutes (9.0%) was higher in fertilized soil, while Bacteroidetes (20.3%) and Verrucomicrobia (7.8%) were more abundant in control soil. Additionally, the effluent seemed to modify soil characteristics favoring taxa responsible for the mineralization of organic compounds and nitrogen fixation such as species of Gammaproteobacteria class. Our study highlights the influence of POME on soil biological components and contributes to the sustainable production of palm oil in the Amazon.

A holistic mitigation model for net zero emissions in the palm oil industry

Achieving net zero emissions to ensure a sustainable future has become increasingly urgent in light of climate change. The palm oil industry in Malaysia plays a significant role in the country's economy but has faced criticism for its environmental impact, particularly in terms of sustainability and greenhouse gas emissions. While the government has implemented policies and initiatives to promote sustainable palm oil production and reduce emissions, there remains a need for a comprehensive and integrated mitigation strategy to help make an informed decision to improve the performance. To address the limitations of the current framework, this study proposes an Integrated Mitigation Strategy Model which incorporates established frameworks of Palm Oil Mill Carbon Accounting (POMCFA) and Sustainability Index (POMSI). This model has been developed based on the superstructure approach, considering a set of mitigation options to improve weak indicators identified through assessments. The selection of these options is informed by a theoretical review of existing literature on factor changes and their impact on emissions reduction. The model is further validated through case studies, ensuring its robustness and reliability. Based on the case study, it reveals that palm oil mill effluent, diesel consumption, and water consumption contribute the most to carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. In terms of sustainability scoring, the environmental aspect obtains the lowest scores compared to social and economic aspects. Weaknesses identified include dust concentration, palm oil mill effluent, and boiler emissions. Using the heuristics of factor changes equation, the mitigation model suggests implementing high-technology boilers as the optimal solution for these weaknesses. With the theoretical and empirical support behind the choice of variables, our model provides a valuable tool for decision-making in achieving net-zero emissions and sustainable palm oil production.

RISS execution by an independent smallholder association

The Center for Sustainable Small-owners (CSS) was established to improve the livelihoods of Independent Smallholders (ISH) of oil palm ensuring ethical and responsible production of oil palm with commitments to no deforestation, no new plantation on peatlands, and no exploitation (NDPE) in the supply chain. The CSS has a two-pronged approach i.e., improving livelihoods through yield intensification while sourcing responsibly ensuring ethical and sustainable oil palm production and ensuring sustainability through certification and compliance while empowering communities through farmer associations to safeguard their interests. The RSPO independent Smallholder Standard (RISS) was adopted by RSPO members on 6 November 2019. As part of its strategy, CSS helped facilitate RISS certification for the very first batch of Independent Smallholders through an ISH association, PERTANIAGA, in August 2021 who received full premium as of September 2022. Today, with 306 ISHs certified, this paper outlines the certification journey of these ISH. CSS aims to have 640 ISH certified through 2023 while diffusing its impact on a larger community through sustainable and good agricultural practices (GAP).

Enhancing Sustainable Palm Oil Production in West Kalimantan: Paradiplomacy and Solidaridad's Role in Achieving Environmental Goals

The global palm oil industry, particularly in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, faces significant environmental scrutiny, with deforestation for oil palm plantations adversely impacting its reputation. This challenge is compounded by the European Union's regulations against products causing environmental harm, pressuring regional governments to safeguard the sustainability of local agriculture. This study examines the West Kalimantan government's collaboration with Solidaridad Indonesia, a renowned educational and cooperative agency, in transforming the local palm oil industry towards sustainability. Employing a qualitative methodology with a focus on secondary data, the research explores West Kalimantan's paradiplomatic initiatives in the global market through its partnership with Solidaridad. This collaboration is analyzed through the lenses of paradiplomacy and sustainable development goals (SDGs). The findings reveal that West Kalimantan's paradiplomacy has significantly enhanced the image of its palm oil commodities. Key strategies include educational programs for local farmers, promotion of certified palm oil standards, and alignment with SDGs. The study highlights the success of this collaborative approach in meeting the aspirations of West Kalimantan's government towards sustainable development, offering a model for other regions facing similar environmental challenges in the palm oil sector.

Analysis of Determining The Cost of Replanting for Smallholder Oil Palm Plantations Using Annuities Model with Python

Palm oil replanting is a necessary activity to enhance the productivity of aging oil palm trees. However, the high costs associated with replanting often create a financial burden for farmers. To address this issue, the study proposes the implementation of a contribution or levy system for smallholder farmers while their oil palm plantations are still productive, which would alleviate the financial burden of replanting. The research methodology employed includes a literature review and primary data collection through a survey of smallholder farmers, with the data being processed to create a mathematical model and simulated using the Python programming language. The results of this study include the development of a mathematical model for the levy and distribution of replanting costs, along with a simulation of the proposed system. This model could help smallholder farmers prepare for replanting costs, enhance the sustainability of palm oil production, and ultimately increase productivity.

Oil palm growers' prospects for sustainable oil palm production. A case study from Campeche, Mexico

CONTEXTA Social-Ecological System (SES) approach to the analysis of agricultural systems enables consideration of the complexity and interdependencies of social, economic, and ecological components of a region. We used such an approach to understand the barriers and levers to the sustainable development of a palm oil production system from the growers' perspective. The study was conducted in Southeast Mexico, where Federal and State governments from 1998 to 2018, promoted oil palm cultivation to reduce imports and meet domestic demand for palm oil. However, after 2018, public funding for oil palm ceased, at a time when the oldest plantations are approaching the end of their productive lives. At this crossroads, the questions that emerge are: will plantations be renewed by oil palm growers? What are the conditions for sustainable palm oil production in the future? OBJECTIVEWe sought to identify oil palm growers' constraints and concerns regarding continued production and explore potential pathways to a sustainable future. METHODSWe used a non-probabilistic sampling technique to conduct a survey of 41 respondents and 43 semi-structured interviews with oil palm growers between May and July 2021. The sample included seven rural communities. In September 2021, we organized focus groups with 29 producers and inhabitants in three of the seven communities using a participatory modeling approach to develop current and desired collective conceptual models of the SES. These models were integrated and validated in the field with 11 farmers in July 2022. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe conceptual models revealed the local history of oil palm development and the difficulties that raised from it, they also underlined limitations of the oil palm growers to maintain their activity including renewing the plantation, such as the lack of technical support, producer organizations with management problems, and widespread perception of Government abandonment. Despite these challenges, farmers are willing to continue oil palm production by reorganizing their production system and fostering new linkages, especially with the industry. SIGNIFICANCEParticipatory modeling of SES with oil palm growers' enabled incorporation of diverse knowledge and different understandings of the problem while outlining the emergence of a possible future for sustainable oil palm production systems. The models presented can be used to identify points of convergence, increase coordination and dialogue among stakeholders to address common challenges and move towards sustainability from a SES perspective.

Environmental Law for Sustainable Palm Oil Development to Combat Deforestation and Climate Change Impact

Purpose: The aim of this study is to examie how environmental law to mitigate the impact of climate change caused by deforestation in Indonesia due to the high demand for palm oil. Theoretical framework: Theoretical framework incorporate principles from international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aligned with environmental law with Indonesia's national policies and strategies, such as the National Action Plan for Greenhouse Gas Reduction and Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO). Design/methodology/approach: The research method used a qualitative approach with data collected through library research. Various sources, including articles, journals, books, reports, and documents, were utilized to gather comprehensive and reliable information on the Indonesian palm oil problem and its environmental and societal impact. Findings: The result of the study concluded that addressing deforestation and the environmental impact of palm oil production requires several measures. These include reducing global demand for palm oil, promoting sustainable palm oil production, and adopting best practices in the palm oil industry. Implementing environmentally friendly approaches, protecting critical conservation areas, respecting the rights of local communities, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are essential steps to mitigate the issue Research, Practical & Social implications: The study outline the role of engage all stakeholders, including producers, companies, governments, civil society, and global consumers, in these efforts. Striking a balance between economic interests and environmental concerns is vital. By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, negative impacts on the environment and society can be minimized, and progress can be made towards achieving climate change mitigation and sustainable development goals. Originality/value: The value of the study lies in its holistic approach to addressing multiple interconnected issues. It not only focuses on environmental conservation but also considers the socioeconomic aspects of small-scale farmers in Indonesia. This integrated perspective is vital for finding sustainable solutions that benefit both the environment and local communities.

Complexities of sustainable palm oil production by smallholders in sub‐Saharan Africa

AbstractSub‐Saharan Africa is increasingly viewed as an important area for oil palm cultivation and expansion. Palm oil is a commodity that can help developing countries like Cameroon attain their sustainable development goals (SDGs) targets through poverty alleviation (SDG 1) and by providing revenue to smallholder farmers to buy a variety of food thereby reducing hunger. However, due to the many negative environmental and social consequences, the sector needs to be made more sustainable. In this study, we set out to unpack the complexities including costs and benefits for smallholder farmers to practice sustainable palm oil production. We use both gray and peer‐reviewed literature, conversational interviews with smallholder farmers and managers of certified palm oil mills, and a workshop with smallholders in Cameroon. We found that smallholders face several challenges including weak land tenure rights, the use of poor‐quality seeds and low‐yielding oil palms, and a lack of skills, expertise, and access to financing. Certification could help alleviate some of the challenges by providing access to financing, training to improve yields, access to better seedlings, and increased access to higher value markets. However, the certification cost is very high compared to the income from oil palm cultivation for most farmers. Farmers will therefore need considerable assistance from organizations and brokers to remain financially viable. Our study provides important insights to countries such as the EU, United Kingdom, and United States that are in the process of adopting legislation to regulate deforestation associated with imports of key commodities such as palm oil.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND TRADE COMPETITIVENESS: THE MALAYSIAN PALM OIL DOWNSTREAM INDUSTRY

This paper explore how export competitiveness in the Malaysian palm oil downstream industry is affected by European Union (EU) environmental regulation. Porter (1990) suggests that environmental policies may foster international competitiveness. To investigate the impact of EU environmental policies on trade competitiveness in the Malaysian palm oil downstream industry, the dynamic generalized method of moments (DGMM) is employed. The final results reveal that EU environmental regulations have a positive impact on palm oil industry competitiveness. This result is consistent with the Porter Hypothesis, which argues that a more stringent environmental regulation can trigger innovation to non-compliance cost. Palm oil downstream innovation is crucial to improve the overall competitiveness of the industry, including the smallholders’ sector. This implies that the Malaysian government may want to introduce certain measures, such as energy taxes to promote the use of renewable energy. This may lead to more sustainable palm oil production which may improve the overall competitiveness of the palm oil downstream industry.

Responsibilization dynamics in naṭural resource management: Insights from two protected areas in Cameroon

The theoretical construct on responsiblization is gaining grounds as a novel analytical lens in the field of governmentality – an approach to the study of strategies for shaping people’s conduct and decisions in line with specific objectives. However, not enough scientific evidence exists on the mechanisms through which protected area communities are rendered responsible by international conservation agencies, and the (un)intended outcomes linked to this process. Through a synthesis of 14 project intervention reports in two Protected Areas (PAs) in Cameroon – the Bakossi National Park (BNP) and the Campo Ma’an National Park (CMNP), complemented by expert interviews (N = 10), this paper: (i) explores the mechanisms employed by conservation responsibilizers in the two PAs, and (ii) examines the (un)intended protected area management outcomes. The thematic and directed content analysis led us to three key findings: Firstly, while interventions in the CMNP are embedded in the ecotourism development model, the case of the BNP centres on the Green Business and Sustainable Oil Palm Production models. This validates the claim that responsibilization and targeted interventions are intertwined and discursively constructed to shape the conduct of local people towards specific goals. Secondly, responsibilization in both cases manifest through poor institutionalization and fragmented capacity building interventions; this undermines the importance of responsive governance. Third, both cases established the incongruence between the capabilities of responsibilizees and the targets set by responsibilizers. This paper provides context-specific evidence to edify the on-going theoretical construct on responsiblization and underscores the need for studies to identify pathways to overcome the capacity gaps of responsibilizees. Policy wise, there is an urgent need to defragment the interventions by responsibilizers to assure long-term strategic interventions.

Biological Control and Biofertilization of Oil Palm (Elaeis Guineensis Jacq.): Towards Sustainable Production

This review put insight into information about biological products used for oil palm production worldwide, particularly in Colombia. Biological products are drawing the next wave of sustainable agriculture in general and palm oil production in particular. The Colombian palm sector is committed to environmentally responsible farming and is a pioneer within America in oil palm certification under roundtable on sustainable palm oil standards. As the global demand for organic food and the awareness of environmental care increases, so does the market for biological products. Biological products help protect oil palm crops against pests and diseases, enhancing plants' growth, health, yield, and profitability. Numerous biological control agents (BCAs) and biofertilizer supplies have been approved and are part of the supply chain for oil palm production. This review offers a comprehensive list of BCAs and biofertilizer supplies commercially available for palm oil production. Thus, it helps cater to the needs of oil palm farmers, agriculturists, and everyone committed to working towards more sustainable oil palm production worldwide.

Oil palm reconciliation in Indonesia: Balancing rising demand and environmental conservation towards 2050

Oil palm plantation has expanded rapidly in Indonesia, driven by the enormous increase in the global demand for oil palm products. While the production and exporting of oil palm products have stimulated economic growth and improved living standards of local people, the expansion has imposed significant costs on the environment. Indonesia faces tough challenges to balance oil palm production with the growing commitment to protect tropical forest and peatland. This research offered a comprehensive assessment of the local responses in land-use changes and the associated environmental impacts in Indonesia to the dynamics on the global market of oil palm products. We employed generalized geo-economic gravity models to project export demand for oil palm products from Indonesia by 2050 under three different international trade scenarios. With the help of parametric survival analysis, we allocated the projected demands to 1km × 1km grids across Indonesia and quantified the possible trade-offs between oil palm expansion and environmental conservation. Results show that about 313–679 million tons of oil palm products (oil palm fruit equivalent) from Indonesia would be needed by 2050, which means about 18.58–45.59 million hectares of new plantation. We estimated that 8%–22% of secondary forest and 21%–54% of peatland would lose to oil palm expansion by 2050 if the expansion follows the historical pathways. Shifting the expansion from natural forest and peatland to degraded land with low environmental values would reduce the CO2 emission by about 87–142 Mton/year, at the expense of increased transportation and infrastructure accessibility costs. This shift towards sustainable palm oil production can be facilitated by extending current policies and regulations to secondary forest, enforcing stricter restrictions on peatland, supporting infrastructure development, and providing economic incentives.

SHELL Genetic Testing: A Key Enabler of Yield Improvement and Sustainable Palm Oil Production

Sustainable production of palm oil can be boosted by the use of appropriate technological tools to improve productivity within existing acreage. The discovery of the SHELL gene and subsequent development of a diagnostic assay to differentiate oil palm’s three fruit forms set the stage for the application of such technological tools by commercial estates prior to planting. The use of DNA-testing can ensure that new planting and re-planting programmes exploit the hybrid vigour expected from selected maternal (dura) and paternal (pisifera) lines. An expanded nationwide survey of more than a million seeds and seedlings not only confirmed the robustness and scalability of SHELL DNA-testing, but more importantly revealed a 12.8 per cent level of undesired planting material across the Malaysian supply chain, which far exceeds that allowed by the national standard. If SHELL testing had been deployed in the past, the value of crude palm oil (CPO) and crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) production in recent years would have increased by $1.63 billion USD in 2021 (or $276/ha/yr), resulting in up to $2.17 billion per year in increased economic activity (or $367/ha/yr), and up to $0.52 billion in additional tax collection by the Malaysian central government (or $88/ha/yr). Compared to the cost of testing of $4 per hectare per year, if testing had been done in the past, each dollar spent on testing would have returned $69.0 in additional production and $91.8 in economic gains. This indicates that the adoption of DNA-testing to manage the oil palm seed and seedling supply chain is necessary if the industry hopes to increase sustainability, productivity, and profitability in the long-term. Keywords: Sustainable palm oil, SHELL DNA testing, non-tenera contamination, seed testing, supply chain quality.

Life cycle assessment and life cycle costing analysis for uncertified and Malaysia sustainable palm oil - MSPO-certified independent smallholders

The Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) Scheme was established by the government of Malaysia to mandate MSPO certification on all palm oil stakeholders within the country by year 2019 as an initiative for sustainable palm oil production. However, independent smallholders (ISH) who account for 16.71% of the total palm oil plantation area in Malaysia have shown a low MSPO registration rate of 24.82% by midyear 2020. Therefore, it is vital to encourage MSPO certification and incorporation of sustainable production practices in ISHs in order to maintain the supply of certified palm oil. The current study has compared the environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) on the uncertified and MSPO-certified fresh fruit bunches (FFB) production among independent smallholders to determine the impacts of MSPO implementation. Based on the LCA findings using ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H), a net decline in environmental impacts will result when independent smallholders adopt MSPO certification. With at least 10.116% decrease in all impact categories except the Mineral Resource Scarcity category (18.065% increase), the endpoint results indicate that MSPO implementation in independent smallholders can overall reduce the environmental impacts from Human Health (99.913%), Ecosystem Quality (99.958%), and Resources (90.223%) categories. The study also finds out that certified ISH systems can further improve by replacing mineral fertilizers with organic fertilizers. In terms of LCC, the net present value in MSPO-certified ISHs (127,092.56 USD) for a 3.94 ha plantation and 25-year life cycle was found to be approximately 39% higher than uncertified ISHs (91,017.84 USD), indicating an increased economic profitability in an ISH system when MSPO is implemented.

Productivity Improvement Strategy Analysis Palm Oil in Sumatra Province 2011-2021

This study uses a weighted index model and a productivity model where Aceh Province is the province with the highest weighted ranking value with a weighted value of 2.06, meaning that Aceh Province to obtain 1 ton of palm oil requires an average area of 2.06ha. Meanwhile, North Sumatra Province is the province with the lowest weighted index value when compared to other Sumatra Provinces, namely with a weighted value of 3.62, meaning that to obtain 1 ton of palm oil, an area of 3.62 Ha is needed. The highest productivity of palm oil production is in Aceh Province at 49.16% while the lowest palm oil production productivity is in North Sumatra Province at 27.98%. The strategy to increase the added value of palm oil production in Sumatra Province is through mapping of smallholder and company palm oil production areas, regulations for the sustainability of palm oil production, provision of subsidized fertilizer assistance for oil palm farmers, especially smallholder farmers and supervision and assistance to oil palm farmers in selecting seeds and processing land.

A critical analysis on biogas production and utilisation potential from palm oil mill effluent

The conventional method used for palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment is associated with several environmental issues that affect the sustainable production of palm oil. Integrated POME treatment with a closed anaerobic digester is identified as a practical cleaner production approach to mitigate global issues on energy security and climate change and enhance the sustainability of the industry. This paper discusses the potential of capturing biogas to the palm oil industry and Malaysia's renewable energy (RE) and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions targets. Approximately 75% GHG reduction could be achieved for every t of crude palm oil produced from palm oil mill with biogas capture. In total, 1750 million m3 biogas with GHG savings of 19.5 million t CO2eq can be achieved annually, if all palm oil mills in Malaysia capture the biogas. A 540 MW installed capacity or 37 million MMBtu in the form of bio-compressed natural gas (Bio-CNG) or biomethane, can supplement the nation's energy mix for the sustainable energy generation. These contribute towards enhancing the sustainability criteria and economic performance of the palm oil mills by adopting cleaner production technology of POME treatment for circular economy and better market access of palm oil products. Future work should emphasise on nationwide biogas implementation through synergising and strengthening private commitments and the government supports.