Sustainable Management Of Agroecosystems Research Articles

Soil organic matter and aggregate stability dynamics under major no-till crop rotations on the Canadian prairies

There is a need to develop and adopt novel, more resilient, or “climate-smart” cropping strategies on the Canadian prairies, which are crucial for sustainable agroecosystem management. To examine how crop rotation influences soil organic matter and aggregate stability (AS) dynamics, six crop rotations: (i) conventional (control), (ii) pulse/oilseed intensified, (iii) diversified, (iv) market-driven, (v) high-risk and high-reward, and (vi) soil health-enhanced were established in 2018 at three field sites: Lethbridge, Alberta and Swift Current and Scott, Saskatchewan under no-till management. After 4-year, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), particulate organic matter carbon (POM-C) and nitrogen (POM-N), or mineral-associated organic matter C (MAOM-C) and N (MAOM-N) concentrations were not significantly affected by crop rotation in the 0–7.5 cm soil depth. However, crop rotation significantly altered AS at two of three sites, with both soil health-enhanced and high-risk and high-reward rotations having the highest AS at Lethbridge and Swift Current. Across all three sites, strong positive correlations were found among SOC, TN, MAOM, and AS. Moreover, MAOM-C and MAOM-N showed stronger relationships with AS than POM, perhaps suggesting a positive feedback loop on the stability of SOC and aggregation. Overall, the inclusion of pulses in rotations showed the potential to sustain soil quality, likely by offsetting low residue quantity with better residue quality and diversity, thereby supporting SOC accrual and AS similar to or greater than conventional cereal- or oilseed-dominated rotations.

Farmers’ participation and perception in sustainable agro-ecosystem management for conservation and stewardship

Farmers’ participation and perception in sustainable agro-ecosystem management for conservation and stewardship

Intensified Structural Overshoot Aggravates Drought Impacts on Dryland Ecosystems

AbstractA favorable environment can induce vegetation overgrowth to exceed the ecosystem carrying capacity, exacerbating water resource depletion and increasing the risk of lagged effects on vegetation degradation. This phenomenon is defined as structural overshoot, which can lead to large‐scale forest mortality and grassland deterioration. However, the current understanding of structural overshoot remains incomplete due to the complex time‐varying interactions between vegetation and climate. Here, we used a dynamic learning algorithm to decompose the contributions of vegetation and climate to drought occurrence, trace the connection between antecedent and concurrent vegetation dynamics, thus effectively capturing structural overshoot. This study focused on the climate‐sensitive hotspot in Northwest China drylands, where significant vegetation greening induced by a warming and wetting climate was detected during 1982–2015, leading to soil moisture deficit and aggravating vegetation degradation risks during droughts. We found that during this period, structural overshoot induced approximately 34.6% of the drought events, and lagged effects accounted for 16.7% of the vegetation degradation for these overshoot drought events. The occurrence of overshoot droughts exhibited an increasing trend over time, which was primarily driven by vegetation overgrowth followed by precipitation variation. Although the severity of overshoot and non‐overshoot droughts were generally comparable in spatial distribution, the impact of overshoot droughts is still becoming increasingly obvious. Our results indicate that the expected intensified overshoot droughts cannot be ignored and emphasize the necessity of sustainable agroecosystem management strategies.

Multifunctional Plants: Ecosystem Services and Undervalued Knowledge of Biocultural Diversity in Rural Communities—Local Initiatives for Agroecological Transition in Chile

With the aim of contributing to the understanding of plants’ multifunctionality for sustainable agroecosystem management, the first part of this paper addresses the importance of functional biodiversity in the design of agroecological systems, including the local context in the generation of situated knowledge. The second part describes three participatory research experiences with local farmers across three locations in Chile. The first experience reports on the use of Dasyphyllum diacanthoides (endemic tree) as fodder. A second experience focuses on the establishment of Rosa spp. (invasive species) as an agroforestry system integrated into the landscape. Both experiences were collaborative efforts with farmer communities of the Andean Mountains in southern Chile. The final experience describes the use of different spontaneous aromatic and medicinal plants through biological corridors to encourage beneficial insects as natural controllers. All three research experiences reveal a lack of knowledge, decontextualization, and undervaluation of the biocultural diversity present in some traditional Chilean agroecosystems.

Characterization and Risk Assessment of Different-Origin Biochars Applied in Agricultural Experiments

This study aimed to assess the impacts of biochar amendments derived from different feedstocks (sewage sludge (SS), olive-mill waste (OMW), compost, and sawdust) in land applications. Tomatoes were used as a test crop in four experiments both under greenhouse and field conditions. SS, OMW, and compost biochar treatments presented 17% to 178.5% higher tomato productivity than control, verifying that biochar behaves as a plant-growth bio-stimulant. This impact is related to the raw material since sawdust biochar did not present results as positive as the other types of biochars. The physicochemical characterization of biochars and their comparison with international and European standards confirmed the safety of their use. A risk-assessment analysis of tomato consumption was conducted in order to explore unfavorable effects on human health. The estimation of cumulative non-carcinogenic risk, found to be between 8.25 × 10−3 and 4.23 × 10−2, and cancer risk for Cr(VI), found to be between 6.56 × 10−6 and 5.2 × 10−5, suggested no risk of potential chronic exposure due to tomato consumption cultivated in biochar-amended soils. This study may be used as a recommendation for farmers and agriculturists for maximizing the yield of agricultural crops in the Mediterranean region, improving soil health, and contributing to the sustainable management of agroecosystems.

Analysis of Interrelations Structure in Agro-Systems Using the Factor Analysis Technique (FA)

A model is not an exact copy of its original, but only its idealised reproduction that is simpler, more understandable, more accessible and easier, safer and more effective to work with. In the presented study, we used the technique of factor analysis (FA). We used 44 parameters to describe an agroecosystem, which proportionally describe the main components of the study agroecosystem. Based on Malinowsky error analysis, we extracted a 6-factor solution. We found out that Factor 1 [Climate factor] had primary factor loads in [average temperatures TIII-TIX (0.99) and [average atmospheric precipitation ZIII-ZIV (0.99)] variables. Factor 2 [Chemical parameters of geological foundation] was mainly saturated by [SiO2-G (0.92), Al2O3-(0.82), (CaO-G (0.83)] variables and secondary loads were observed in soil [SiO2-P (0.61], [CaO-P (0.64], [Al2O3-P (0.32)], [soil skeleton SKEL (0.47)] and [granularity GRN (0.39)] variables. Factor 3 [Phytomass production potential factor] had primary factor loads in [depth of soil profile DSP (0.76)], [quality of organic substances Q4/6 (0.63)], [slopeness SL (0.67)] and [potential phytomass production PROD (0.65)] variables. In factor 4 [Physical-chemical soil properties factor] variables [Al2O3, (0.81)], [granularity GRN (0.69)] and [SiO2 (0.61)] have significant loads. Factor 5 [Erosion by water potential factor] has the highest primary loads in [large-scale arable land ALL (0.70)] and [soil loss as a result of erosion EROS (0.67)] variables, and secondary loads in the [continuous length of plot of land slope LS (0.53)] variable. Factor 6 [Biochemical properties factor] has the highest factor load values in the content of organic substances in soil [content of organic substances in soil H (0.69)]. Secondary loads can be seen in the properties of soil [GRN (0.35)], [SiO2 (0.32)], [Al2O3-P (0.38)] and [depth of groundwater surface GWS (0.39)]. We determined the weight coefficients for the individual factors with the aim of quantifying ecological criteria with the obtained factor structure. The factor score F0 determines the projections of the extracted factors for the individual elements of the selection (it is the value soil-ecological units—VSEU). Row vectors in this matrix represent the distribution of the individual factors for the specific realisation of the selection (spatial distribution). We re-scaled the obtained values of the factor score into seven categories and projected them into VSEU units. We could propose a sustainable agroecosystem management based on quantifying the ecological criteria for each VSEU unit.

Biostimulants Using Humic Substances and Plant-Growth-Promoting Bacteria: Effects on Cassava (Manihot esculentus) and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Yield

Traditional agriculture represents the most-extensive food-producing segment in the world. However, these agroecosystems are widely and closely associated with rural poverty, reflecting the dualism between the subsistence and the commodity-producing sector in the peripheric countries. Therefore, socially adapted technologies may be a reliable and helpful methodology to enhance subsistence crop production. Humic substances are natural organic biostimulants extractable as water suspensions from renewable sources such as agricultural biomass and farming residues. These easy-to-handle extracts may be mixed with plant-growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) and used as biostimulants within a low-cost technological application in the circular economy strategy. Few investigations have been focused on the use of biostimulant practices on marginal or subsistence crops. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) are two essential foods for poor communities of rural territories in tropical and subtropical countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the foliar application of a humic/PGPB mixed biostimulant on cassava and okra crops grown in an agricultural soil with very low natural fertility. In pot trials, the applied biostimulant improved the plant development with a 200% increase of the root weight in cassava, while the preservation of active diazotrophic bacteria was improved by 10- and 100-times in cassava and okra in the mixed formulation with humic acid. In real field systems, the plant treatment increased the yield of cassava and okra by 70% and 50%, respectively thereby allowing a simultaneous nitrogen savings with the best yield performance obtained at the lower N fertilization rate. The use of biostimulants can play a role in the transition process, helping the food security and the autonomy of impoverished farmers. Combining the elements of traditional knowledge and modern science is essential to create innovative technologies enabling the sustainable management of agroecosystems.

The Soil Microbiota Recovery in the Agroecosystem: Minimal Information and a New Framework for Sustainable Agriculture.

The efficient management of soil represents a mission of vital importance for meeting the continuously increasing agricultural demand in a sustainable way. Decades of research identified in the biotechnological potential of soil microorganisms an always more practicable channel for achieving these goals. Due to the complexity of soil microbial communities and their tight connection to soil characteristics, it is still difficult to define universal strategies for an efficient and sustainable agroecosystem management. We here propose a new framework for the assessment of the impact of agricultural practices in the agroecosystem that revolves around the concept of microbial community recovery. This assessment is based on the selection of (i) a representative temporal interval, (ii) a representative agricultural system and (iii) monitoring tools able to assess the expression levels of microbial functionality in soil. This approach can be especially valuable for evaluating the effects of agrochemicals and other agronomical amendments (of different nature: biological, physical, chemical) on the soil microbiota. In the same way precision-medicine tries to tailor drugs on an always smaller subset of patients’ characteristics, a new generation of agrochemicals can be developed and tested considering soil characteristics in order to minimize their off-target effects. What remains central in this paradigm is the promotion of Soil Health maintenance practices. As for healthy humans, a healthy soil is more resilient and tolerates treatments and stresses better while recovering more quickly.

Inventory of agroecosystem services and perceptions of potential implications due to climate change: A case study from Benin in West Africa

Agricultural and Agroforestry play an important role in the economy of West African countries. They contribute to nearly 40% of the GDP and provide a large variety of ecosystem services to the local populations. However, the sustainability of agricultural and agroforestry systems in these countries is gradually jeopardised by climate change since these ecosystems are still predominantly rain-fed and therefore at the mercy of climatic hazards. For a developing country like Benin, there is still a lot of data gap in other to quantify the impact of climate change on agro-ecosystems. Thus, the current study focused on providing an inventory of the evolution and the monetary value of agro-ecosystem services in Benin with an analysis of the perceptions of the impact of climate change on these services. The data analysed showed, from 1975 to 2015, a reduction in forests and savannahs in favour of an increase in cultivated land. The areas of water bodies, swamps and floodplains have increased by almost 500% in the subequatorial climate regions and have remained almost unchanged in the tropical climate regions. The main uses of agroecosystems were agriculture, fishing, energy production, timber trade, and cultural rituals. A monetary estimate reveals that the value of agroecosystems services provided in the subequatorial regions (USD 3700/ha) is 2–3 times greater than that of the value of these services in the tropical regions (USD 1600/ha). The local population didn't perceive see climate hazards as a threat to community forests and planted forests. However, they felt that the establishment of sustainable management of agroecosystems through good agricultural practices and sustainable management of the landscape, would allow better regulation of the climate, conservation of specific and genetic biodiversity, and solve the problems of erosion and silting up of rivers.

Bio-inspired and artificial intelligence enabled hydro-economic model for diversified agricultural management

Neoteric phenomena such as climate change, scarce water availability and excessive fertilizer usage necessitate an augmentation of resource utilisation efficiencies in the agricultural sector. There is a need to reorient the agroecosystems to curb stress on environmental resources while meeting rising socio-economic objectives under changing hydro-climatic conditions. Considering this, optimal land allocation for diversified agriculture is essential. We propose a combinatorial optimisation approach for land allocation considering agronomic, socio-economic, environmental and hydro-climatic objectives using bio-inspired optimization algorithms. The stochastic approach tackles the problem of optimal agricultural land allocation for crops in a multidimensional context by simultaneously addressing the conflicting goals of farm-level risk management as well as district-level contingency planning. The efficiencies and sensitivity of the proposed framework are assessed through a case study of the Dharwad district in Karnataka, India using the data (water and fertilizer consumption and cost, crop type, cultivable land, man and machine hours, etc.) from the year 2019–2020. Results indicate that Multi-objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) is more capable of optimising agricultural resources management by suggesting optimal land allocation for diversified crop planning. Although Cuckoo Search (CS) and Particle Search Optimisation (PSO) also produced productive Pareto fronts, they were observed to be less effective than MOGA. The annual increase in profits and crop yield obtained using MOGA are 103% and 97% respectively, while water usage is reduced by 5% compared to the conventional routines in Dharwad. The proposed hydro-agronomic decision support framework (DSF) can be utilised to assist the AI-enabled crop planning process for the sustainable management of agroecosystems.

Poly-Species Phytocenoses for Ecosystem Restoration of Degraded Soil Covers

Agroecological studies are based on the concept that, by understanding ecological processes, it is possible to manage agroecosystems for more sustainable production of more biomass and, thus, protection of natural resources. Many studies in the field of agroecology show that some farming methods can improve soil quality and restore agroecosystems by increasing plant biodiversity. Functional characteristics of plants for the assessment of ecosystem processes and services can be used for the sustainable management of agroecosystems. The paper discusses ways to restore pastures with low biological productivity in the arid steppe of Northern Kazakhstan (Kostanay region). Grass-and-legume mixtures were selected, according to the soil and climatic conditions of this region, to increase the productivity of pastures. The authors also describe the meteorological conditions in the region in question for 2021. The data of agrochemical analysis of the soil on which the grass mixture was grown differed slightly from the soils of other sites and often even was inferior to them in some indicators that affected plant productivity, namely, the humus, phosphorus, and potassium content. In the conditions of the experiment, the highest productivity was shown by the grass-and-legume mixture consisting of crested wheatgrass-alfalfa-awn less brome (27.8 c/ha of green mass and 12.6 c/ha of dry matter). Thus, according to the information obtained during the study, it can be concluded that to restore the productivity of pastures in Northern Kazakhstan, it is necessary to select the grass-and-legume mixtures that have the highest productivity and nutritional value and are adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of this region. The algorithm of the predictive simulation model of the dynamics of the graminoid community is also presented in a general form. Problems related to the remediation of soil covers are discussed.

Using motifs in ecological networks to identify the role of plants in crop margins for multiple agriculture functions

Advances in network ecology offer new tools for the sustainable management of agroecosystems. Plants in field margins may be involved in different processes of agronomic importance - indirectly affecting crops by supporting shared pollinators, hosting natural enemies of pests or acting as pest reservoirs. In this work, we explored the use of motifs (patterns of interaction between a subset of species) in agricultural ecological networks incorporating multiple types of trophic interactions to identify plant species with a key role in field margins. We searched for plant species benefiting crops via (1) shared pollinators and (2) supporting parasitoids of crop pests; or (3) negatively affecting crops through attracting pest herbivore species. We focused on determining whether species’ showed consistent affiliation with these roles across the landscape and evaluated the potential of plant species to influence crops indirectly via shared insect partners. To showcase our framework, we used a unique data set of antagonistic and mutualistic interactions recorded in soybean crops and wild plant species in field margins, that despite its limitations (e.g., spanning one growing season) allowed us to test our approach using multiple types of interactions simultaneously. Here, we support the use of motifs in multi-trophic interaction networks in agroecosystems to reveal the role of key plant species in sustaining ecological functions involving crops and other plant species, enhancing the evidence base for management recommendations in the future.

Intraspecific trait variation improves understanding and management of cover crop outcomes

AbstractUnderstanding links between functional trait diversity and ecosystem services can inform more sustainable management of agroecosystems. The use of cover crops (i.e., non‐harvested crops) is a key strategy for increasing plant functional trait diversity in crop rotations. Variation in functional traits can be assessed in multiple ways—within a species (intraspecific), across species (interspecific), and across communities (community trait metrics). Recent evidence from the field of trait‐based research suggests that the role of intraspecific trait variation (ITV) in explaining ecological dynamics deserves greater attention. We conducted a systematic literature review to determine whether this also applies to cover crops. While fewer than one‐third of the 30 studies we reviewed explicitly tested intraspecific trait questions, together they demonstrated that significant ITV occurs across populations and in response to environmental and management conditions. ITV is thus an understudied yet important aspect of cover crop performance. To address research gaps identified by the literature review, we conducted a complementary field experiment to evaluate cover crop functional trait variation and assess relationships between traits and ecosystem services. Significant ITV occurred among three cover crop species (buckwheat, cowpea, and sorghum sudangrass) planted alone and in mixtures, indicating that interactions between functionally diverse species in mixtures induced trait plasticity. We expected that traits such as plant height, root:shoot ratio, shoot C:N ratio, and specific leaf area (SLA) would be positively related to cover crop nitrogen (N) assimilation. Using community‐weighted means per common practice, our hypothesis was supported for the former three traits, while SLA was unexpectedly negatively associated with N assimilation. However, ITV revealed that this unexpected relationship was driven by higher SLA and lower N assimilation values of the broadleaf compared with the grass species. Across treatments, SLA for the grass species was positively related to N assimilation, as expected. In sum, we demonstrate that assessing ITV is critical for refining understanding and management of cover crop outcomes.

Exploring relationships among landownership, landscape diversity, and ecological productivity in Kentucky

Kentucky has varied landscapes favorable for different land use land cover and agroecosystem management. The changes in land use land cover concerning a change in landownership structure can potentially alter landscape diversity and ecological productivity. This research examined the relationship among land cover, ownership structure (small, medium, and large parcel), and ecological productivity in Scott, Morgan, and Graves counties of Kentucky. Landsat 4–5 TM and 8 OLI (30-meter) imagery were used for supervised classification, accuracy assessment, and change detection at the pixel level in the years 2001, 2011, and 2016 for major land cover classes. The correlations in landscape diversity were analyzed using parcel data and thematic maps. Ecological productivity was estimated using the MODIS-NDVI 250 m, 16-day mean composite data along with parcel data. The change in land cover was primarily noticed in the cultivated crops and water, cultivated crops, and forest and pasture in Scott, Morgan, and Graves Counties, respectively. There was a strong negative correlation among agriculture, forest, and developed lands. The parcel size was significant (p < 0.05) for most of the land cover classes, but the relationships were not consistent in all combinations of year and counties. The ecological productivity was significantly different (p < 0.05) between small, medium, and large parcels. Further research is needed on other driving factors so that appropriate policy and decisions can be set for sustainable agroecosystem management.

Quantifying the Contribution of Seed Blended Refugia in Field Corn to Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Populations.

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), a pest of cotton that also occurs in field corn, is commonly controlled through the use of foliar-applied insecticides or transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt) genes. To minimize the risk of Bt resistance in pest populations, refuge systems have been implemented for sustainable agroecosystem management. Historically, structured refuge compliance among growers has been low, leading to the commercialization of seed blended refugia. To test the viability of seed blended refugia in southern U.S. field corn, field studies were conducted in Mississippi and Georgia during 2016, 2017, and 2018 growing seasons. To quantify adult H. zea emergence from structured (non-Bt corn) and seed blended refuge options, emergence traps were utilized. Kernel damage among seed blended refuge and structured refuge corn ears were recorded and compared. The timing of moth emergence was recorded. When compared to a structured refuge, H. zea adult moth emergence from seed blended refugia did not significantly differ. Kernel damage of non-Bt plants in the seed blended treatments was not significantly different than non-Bt plants in the structured refuge treatments. Moth emergence timing was not significantly delayed between the structured refuge and seed blended refuge treatments. Results of this study suggest that a seed blended refuge may provide an effective insecticide resistance management alternative for H. zea in areas where structured refuge compliance is low.

Steering the restoration of degraded agroecosystems during the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

Agroecosystems are the largest human-natural coupled production system covering ~40% of the planet earth and provide essential ecosystem services for a good quality of life and human wellbeing. The sustainable management of agroecosystems are therefore essential for meeting the food, fuel, fiber, and fodder demands of the rapidly growing human population. Agroecosystems also play a key role in trace gases emission, and also affect the quality and usage of life-supporting resources such as air, water, soil etc. Though the sustainable management of agroecosystems are imperative for achieving UN-Sustainable Development Goals, they are frequently under degradation due to multiple drivers of changes such as unsustainable land-use practices, biodiversity loss, pollution and climate change, etc. Therefore, cordial efforts at national, regional and global levels are essential for managing agroecosystems to meet out the global goals and also the targets of the United Nations- Decade o-n Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030). Here we opined various strategies for restoring degraded agroecosystems for sustainable development including the adoption of emerging paradigms such as micro-agriculture, urban agriculture, and landless agriculture for averting the mounting pressure on agroecosystems for the benefit of both people and the planet.

Integrating ecosystem services into decision support for management of agroecosystems: Viva Grass tool

The area covered by low-input agroecosystems (e.g. semi-natural and permanent grasslands) in Europe has considerably decreased throughout the last century. To support more sustainable management practices and to promote biodiversity and ecosystem service values of such agroecosystems, a decision support tool was developed. The tool aims to enhance the implementation of ecosystem services and address the challenge of their integration into spatial planning. The Viva Grass tool aims to enhance the maintenance of ecosystem services delivered by low-input agroecosystems. It does so by providing spatially-explicit decision support for land-use planning and sustainable management of agroecosystems. The Viva Grass tool is a multi-criteria decision analysis tool for integrated planning. It is designed for farmers, spatial planners and policy-makers to support decisions for management of agroecosystems. The tool has been tested to assess spatial planning in eight case studies across the Baltic States.

Optimization of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application Enhances Biocontrol Function and Net Income.

The intensive use of nitrogen fertilizer has been a common approach for pursuing higher crop yields. However, the ecological effects of such use on the tritrophic interactions (crop-insect pest-natural enemy) and on the ecological and economic benefits of such use are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the effects of low, medium, and high levels of nitrogen fertilizer inputs (70, 140, and 280 kg/ha/yr) on cereal aphid (Sitobion avenae Fabricius [Hemiptera: Aphididae], Schizaphis graminum Rondani [Hemiptera: Aphididae], and Rhopalosiphum padi L. [Hemiptera: Aphididae]) abundance, primary parasitism rates, crop yield, and net income in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum [Poales: Poaceae] cv. Zhou 22) for 2 yr. A higher input of nitrogen fertilizer significantly enhanced the abundance of cereal aphids, while their primary parasitism rates (26.9 ± 3.5% in 2018 and 24.9 ± 4.5% in 2019) were highest at the medium nitrogen level. The performance of participants in the wheat-aphids-parasitoids system was likewise mediated by the nitrogen fertilizers. Meanwhile, wheat yield significantly increased with moderate increases in the nitrogen level, although overuse of nitrogen fertilizer did not significantly further enhance wheat yield. Finally, we found either low or overuse of nitrogen fertilizers resulted in lower net income than did medium nitrogen fertilization. These results demonstrate the need to reevaluate and adjust fertilizer use to optimize the eco-economic and sustainable management of agroecosystems.

Modelling crop yield, water consumption, and water use efficiency for sustainable agroecosystem management

Agroecosystems provide food, energy, and essential services, while accounting for 80% of the world’s total water use. Producing more food with limited water resources or improving water use efficiency (WUE) is an urgent task, especially in arid and semi-arid areas with fragile ecosystems and severe water shortages. This study integrated crop type distribution, irrigation data, remote sensing imagery, and meteorological factors to simulate the crop yield, water consumption, and WUE in the Heihe River Basin of China during 2007–2012. We found that variations in water consumption had little impact on crop yield because the value far exceeded the actual water requirement. From 2007 to 2012, the water consumption of corn increased by 11.24%, while its yield decreased by 0.63%. In contrast, the water consumptions of wheat, oilseed rape, and other crops decreased by 15.45%, 10.32%, and 4.61%, while their yields increased by 2.41%, 8.91%, and 1.13%, respectively. Consequently, the WUE of corn decreased by 10.68%, while that of oilseed rape, wheat, barley, and other crops increased by 21.44%, 21.13%, 4.96%, and 6.02%, respectively. The expansion of the area planted with corn led to a 3.36% increase in the WUE of the basin. However, this agricultural development is clearly unsustainable because it increased agricultural water consumption and decreased the ecological and domestic water supply. On-demand irrigation is therefore necessary to reduce water wastage and improve WUE. This would have reduced agricultural water consumption in 2007 and 2012 by 32.58% and 30.13%, and the WUEs would have increased by 48.33% and 43.12%, respectively. Sustainable water-efficient management should comprehensively consider the economic benefits and environmental burdens in crop structure adjustment, irrigation practices, and field management. Additionally, a knowledge-exchange system among experts, resource managers, and farmers is crucial for improving WUE strategies for sustainable agroecosystem development.

Development of sustainable plant protection programs through multi-actor Co-innovation: An 8-year case study in Swedish apple production

This article assesses the multi-actor co-innovation research that was carried out between 2010 and 2018 by researchers and apple production actors. The aim was to develop sustainable integrated pest management methods that, with the help of an agroecological whole system approach, would be both desirable and feasible to implement in practice. Whilst a novel pest management strategy based on semiochemicals arrived at and was rapidly adopted by growers, the enhancement of biological control through functional diversity required long-term learning. This is explained by substantial differences in the perception of the economic risk and the necessary knowledge behind the adoption of each method. The knowledge gap due to the reduced number of extension advisors and the conflict between the cost incurred when implementing low-impact pest control methods and reduced profitability of apple crops were pointed out as major contradictions by the actors. We suggest that strengthened regional agroecological infrastructure support along with the expansion of public advisory service personnel would reduce the farmer economic risk and share the responsibility for a safer environment and healthier food. Similarly, relevant authorities should be provided with resources to allow for safety assessments of candidate low-risk plant protection products at the regional scale. As a conclusion, we recognised that in our region sustainable agroecosystem management through feasible and desirable plant protection strategies could not be developed solely by focussing on the efficiency of the tools because the cost-effectiveness and thus the implementation of such tools depended greatly on the simultaneous co-innovation of the socio-technical system. Local stakeholders need to harmonise their vision and standpoints to engender long term socially and environmentally sound objectives providing a base to promote, finance and extensively adopt innovative plant protection strategies within the Skåne region.