Sustainable Livelihoods Framework Research Articles

Estimating weight for multidimensional health poverty using Delphi method and analytic hierarchy process: a case of China

BackgroundTraditionally, poverty assessment has relied on a single income criterion, which is inadequate in contexts where absolute poverty has been mitigated. This study developed a weighting scheme for the Multidimensional Health Poverty Index (MHPI) based on sustainable livelihood framework (SLF), aimed at enhancing the accuracy of poverty identification in China.MethodsA two-round Delphi process was used to determine the indicators of the index system. The weight of each indicator was calculated using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method. The multidimensional poverty index incorporates SLF’s five dimensions: financial, natural, physical, social, and human capital.ResultsThe initial 46 indicators formed an indicator pool for the Delphi questionnaire. Based on the final consensus of the expert panel, the Delphi consultation resulted in an index system comprising six first-level and 23 second-level indicators. The weight values of the first-level indicators (economic security, health status, education, social capital, healthcare utilisation, and living conditions) were 0.2715, 0.2593, 0.0855, 0.0657, 0.1812, and 0.1363, respectively.ConclusionThis study established a scientific and effective index to evaluate generate weight for estimating multidimensional health poverty in China. Economic security, health status, and healthcare utilisation are the most crucial aspects of multidimensional health poverty. Moreover, the results indicated that vocational training and social capital should be emphasised.

Determinants of livelihood diversification in an integrated agricultural and non-agricultural livelihood system in Ghana

The diversification of livelihoods by households has been widely acknowledged as a way to overcome food insecurity and poverty challenges in developing countries. Diversification of livelihoods helps spread the risk among multiple livelihood earning activities to provide households with a range of their food needs all year round. By examining the integrated livelihood systems of 405 rural farm households in the Upper East Region of Ghana, empirical evidence is provided in this study using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to advance arguments in the literature for the creation of sustainable strategies that improve diversified livelihood systems. The mean diversification indices estimated were 0.45 for agricultural diversification systems, 0.32 for non-agricultural diversification systems and 0.59 for integrated agricultural and non-agricultural diversification systems. With the use of the Cragg two-step regression model, we demonstrate that the decision to diversify and the extent of diversification of rural livelihoods are distinct decisions and are influenced by distinct sets of factors. Similarly, for the three categories of livelihood diversification studied, the effect of these factors also differed. The results emphasize the significance of access to good road network, credit and market information in encouraging rural farm households to diversify their livelihoods. In the short term, improving access to credit and market information through community-based initiatives can provide immediate support to rural households. Communities should also organize local markets and cooperatives to strengthen their economic resilience. While government and stakeholders should focus on long-term infrastructure projects, these community actions can complement such efforts and contribute to achieving global and regional goals targeting food insecurity and poverty eradication.

Unlocking sustainability in China's small-scale fisheries: A case study of livelihood analysis in the Bohai Region

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) are a vital component of the global fisheries sector, significantly contributing to food security, livelihoods, and cultural heritage. In China, the SSF sub-sector is substantial, yet it is often overshadowed by large-scale fisheries (LSF), resulting in limited understanding and targeted management measures for SSF. This study uses the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) to compare the livelihoods of SSF and LSF in China's Bohai Region, aiming to identify the sustainability challenges faced by SSF and explore potential improvement pathways. The results indicate that the overall livelihood assets of SSF are significantly lower than those of LSF. The failure to differentiate between these two sub-sectors in fisheries management may exacerbate this disparity, further marginalizing SSF. We recommend that China undertake immediate fisheries reforms and outreach efforts aimed at promoting the sustainability of SSF communities. Key strategies include strengthening property rights governance, establishing inclusive decision-making processes for SSF fishers, providing preferential policies and financial support for the most vulnerable SSF actors, and incorporating considerations of SSF's role within the broader socio-ecological system and its interactions with other components into management. Additionally, we suggest the development of a separate management plan for SSF to address their unique needs. This study enhances the understanding of China's SSFs, supports the implementation of SSF Guidelines in China, and offers insights into global SSF management.

PLANNING AND JOURNALING THE AGROPOLITAN PROJECT: A FOCUS ON INCOME ANALYSIS FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION

Although Malaysias poverty rate has decreased, there are still people who suffer from extreme poverty, especially in rural areas. The agropolitan project under the Rural Mega Leap Program (PLMLB) is a program aimed at eradicating extreme poverty and expediting progress in rural regions. The achievements of agropolitan projects are evaluated through the extent to which they help participants to get out of extreme poverty and are measured using Poverty Line Income (PGK). However, PGK only takes into account income and consumption and does not take into account non-monetary aspects such as living conditions, basic facilities and so on. Therefore, this research intends to examinethe effects of the implementationof this project on the participants in eradicating poverty and towards a sustainable livelihood. Multidimensional Poverty Index (IKPD) is used to measure poverty in this study along with its applicationof PGK. A study using the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (KPL), was conducted at the Gahai Agropolitan Project in Lipis, Pahang, involved 45 participants. Research data was obtained through the distribution of questionnaires and analyzed using SPSS version 22 software and Microsoft Excel. Studies show that theproposed project is useful to eradicating poverty and contributing to sustainable livelihoods. Calculation of the Multidimensional Poverty Index (IKPD) shows that the individuals involved are not subjected to multidimensional poverty.In addition, the participants are also exempted from extreme poverty and experience increased income within five years of participating in the Gahai Agropolitan Project. From the aspect of sustainable living, the results of the study show that the participants experience high vulnerability. Analysis of asset ownership shows that the participants of theAgropolitan Project have good asset ownership. Analysis of the regression model of income determinants for the participants demonstrate that financial assets are an important factor affecting income. According to the findings of this study, there are several recommendations for policy implications to evaluate participants or non-participants of agropolitan projects, which is to consider the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (KPL) in rural development and use the Multidimensional Poverty Index (IKPD) as a complement to the PGK.

Designing a framework to analyze the impact of watershed development on socioeconomic development: integrating literature, theory, and practice

Watershed development initiatives have emerged as key tools for achieving sustainable rural development, especially in countries experiencing environmental degradation and resource constraints. Despite the increasing acknowledgment of the significance of watershed development interventions, there remains a dearth of comprehensive frameworks for evaluating their effects on the socioeconomic progress of communities, particularly concerning rural livelihoods and household food security outcomes. Hence, this study addresses this gap by developing a comprehensive impact analysis conceptual framework tailored to assess the impact of watershed development on socioeconomic aspects. This study designed the framework by incorporating existing theoretical perspectives (the sustainable livelihoods framework, political ecology, theory of change, and community-based natural resource management) and making essential adjustments. This novel conceptual framework offers a multifaceted approach to assess the socioeconomic impacts of watershed development projects, particularly on rural livelihoods and household food security. Employing a mixed methods approach, the framework sheds light on how interventions affect the livelihood assets and strategies of rural communities, ultimately influencing their food security and well-being. Furthermore, it examines how community involvement and national policy affect these efforts. By providing a holistic understanding of watershed development dynamics, this framework allows researchers and practitioners to assess impacts, identify trade-offs, and evaluate interventions. This informs policymakers about evidence-based interventions to promote sustainable socioeconomic development in rural communities.

Short-Term Digital Platform Work’s Long-Term Impact on Livelihoods

As platformization and virtualization of work gain prominence in the digitally connected world, parallel efforts are being made to narrow the digital divides, driving the globalization of short-term digital labor as both a rapidly evolving theoretical construct and a practical reality. Although the disproportionate influence of platforms on Global South development is a growing area of concern, the global reach of platforms does not necessarily imply a uniform impact on development gains and constraints across different developing regions. This review paper explores this interplay between digital platform work and local development, particularly emphasizing the long-term impact of platform-mediated digital work on workers’ livelihoods in the Global South. The study delves into how the variation in local contextual factors changes the livelihood outcomes of platform work in different Global South countries. The study focuses on three key areas endogenous to local development, i.e., access to decent work, employability skills development, and workers’ resilience within the ever-changing job market. A realist synthesis method is used to distinguish between different scholarly perspectives across various disciplines and geographic areas. The findings are further utilized to refine a conception of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, providing a tool that broadens the scope of platform work analysis to account for the diverse structural and contextual factors impacting workers’ livelihoods in different regions. The study calls for a thorough examination of the uneven distribution of platform labor outcomes, focusing particularly on the local contextual factors contributing to this disparity.

Social protection, food security and sustaining households during COVID-19: Experiences of single mothers residing in Umkhanyakude, South Africa

This study examines the relationship between access to state cash transfers, food security and the sustainability of single-mother households in the rural Umkhanyakude Municipal area in Kwa-Zulu Natal province, South Africa. We explored the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 and cash transfers as a primary contributor to the economic well-being of single mothers from low-income rural communities. We also focus on financial transfers from non-state sources such as non-governmental organisations, kin and non-kin support systems. The sustainable livelihoods framework provides an analytical tool to understand how cash transfers from the state enable single mothers to navigate challenges during the pandemic. Drawing on interviews with 16 women from a rural community in Umkhanyakude, we analyse the distribution of family income to meet household expenses and the survival strategies such as livelihood activities initiated by single mothers to sustain households. The challenges and constraints that limit their livelihood outcomes, such as menial state support and financial constraints to sustain their economic activities are highlighted. Three key themes are discussed in this paper: the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 on food security, cash transfers as a strategy for reducing food insecurity, and access to sustainable livelihood activities to reduce food insecurities. This paper contributes to understanding single mothers' roles as actors and beneficiaries of the South African social protection system. It highlights opportunities for various state and non-state agents to advocate and support self-initiated economic activities in single-mother households.

Applying the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to Examine the Efficacy of Community-Based Tourism at Equitably Promoting Local Livelihood Opportunities

ABSTRACT Community-based tourism (CBT) projects often fail to enhance rural livelihoods because of poor fit with the local livelihood context and inequitable participation opportunities. Through a mixed-methods study on a CBT initiative in Carmelita, Guatemala, this research applied the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) to understand how tourism contributes to local livelihoods and residents’ perceived barriers for participation. The authors applied ethnographic research methods (observation and semi-structured interviews with 43 Carmelita residents and 10 key informants) and analyzed wages and job distribution from tourism employment records. CBT supported a high, albeit gendered, distribution of tourism jobs across the community. Tourism was a fundamental, but not stand-alone, livelihood activity. Residents perceived few barriers to participate in tourism, but increasing formalization changed how they worked with tourists. Understanding tourism development within the local livelihood context and how CBT initiatives distribute tourism job opportunities is critical to meaningfully generate equitable income-earning opportunities within communities.

Farmland rental participation, livelihood capital, and rural income inequality: evidence from rural China

ABSTRACT Using data from the China Family Panel Studies through a national rural survey, we analysed the effects of farmland rental participation and five types of livelihood capital on rural household income. We considered different livelihood strategies and applied the sustainable livelihood framework. Additionally, we used a regression-based Shapley-value decomposition method to examine how farmland rental participation and livelihood capital contribute to the rural income gap. Additionally, we investigated whether farmland rental participation is beneficial in reducing rural income inequality. The results show that farmland rental participation can lead to income benefits for the vast majority of farmers. Furthermore, farmland rental participation is not a primary factor contributing to the rural income gap. Household physical, human, and financial capital emerge as the three factors significantly influencing the income gap. The quantile regression results indicate that providing reasonable guidance to the farmland rental market is beneficial for narrowing the rural income gap. Implementing proactive policies aimed at enhancing the human, financial, and social capital of farmers can theoretically contribute to narrowing the rural income inequality.

Weather-related shocks, livelihood assets and coping strategies of water-insecure smallholder rice farmers: A case study from Ogun State, Nigeria

Building resilience against shocks is crucial for enhancing the livelihoods of water-insecure smallholder farming households. This research investigates household coping strategies for mitigating weather-related shocks and explores differences in the livelihoods of water-insecure smallholder rice farming households in Ogun State, Nigeria. Field survey data was collected from 175 households, and a coping strategies index was formulated, taking into account the severity and the frequency of coping measures. Using the k-means cluster approach, households were categorized into four clusters based on the components of the sustainable livelihoods framework. The study reveals variability across the clusters in terms of vulnerability and the degree to which households are able to use adequate coping strategies. Two out of the four clusters (clusters 1 and 2) are identified as coping farming households with moderate to high vulnerability to drought and floods, while clusters 3 and 4 are limited coping farming households with moderate to low vulnerability to these weather-related shocks. Addressing households’ challenges to cope with extreme weather events is necessary to enhance the resilience and adaptability of water-insecure farming households, and will contribute to creating sustainable livelihoods of at-risk households facing climate emergencies.

PARTICIPANTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE EXPANDED PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMME TO SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS

Public Employment Programmes (PEPs), which include the South African Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP), are widely recognised as important social protection tools that address the challenges of persistent unemployment and dire poverty. PEPs offer a ‘win-win’ policy option by creating jobs while simultaneously generating assets and delivering services. In South Africa, the impact of PEPs has primarily been evaluated based on employment opportunities, thus creating a gap in the comprehensive assessment of their contribution to the broader livelihood of participants beyond job creation. To address this gap, a qualitative research method was employed, utilising a snowball sampling strategy and the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework as the theoretical foundation for the investigation. The findings of this study underscore the positive contribution of the EPWP to the livelihoods of its participants. However, the study also uncovered various challenges confronting the programme, such as non-compliance with program regulations, such as payment below minimum wage rates and difficulties in meeting youth employment targets amidst escalating youth unemployment rates in South Africa. The research recommends introducing a national EPWP policy with enforcement mechanisms and youth-focused programmes while strengthening local institutions to provide services and processes to enhance the impact of these programs and create a conducive environment for beneficiaries to improve their livelihoods and escape poverty.

Changes in livelihood assets due to the intervention of a development project: A case study at Khutamara Union, Bangladesh

Presently, any development initiatives without considering sustainability can barely be imagined. There has been a paradigm shift in the focus of the development partners from the mere development to sustainable development. However, the role of development partners in bringing sustainability in livelihood assets of the rural community has long been questioned. Hence, this study aims to explore the sustainability in the form of changes in livelihood assets of a local community in Bangladesh. This study considers the changes in livelihood assets of the community over the three-time frames - before, during, and after a project implemented by a national NGO called ‘UST’ and subsequently identifies the community’s capacity to sustain the project outcomes after the completion of the project. ‘Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF)’ developed by Department for International Development (DFID) was utilized in this study to analyse the vulnerability and livelihood issues of the community members. Data has been collected through focus group discussions, household survey and key informants’ interviews from three distinct villages of ‘Khutamara’ union in the ‘Nilphamari’ district of Bangladesh. The finding of the study states that all the livelihood assets such as the social capital, human capital, natural capital, financial capital, physical capital have positively changed due to the interference of the development partners. This study further finds that even after the completion of project tenure, such positive trends continue to exist among the community members indicating sustainable development. Moreover, political capital- a new type of livelihood has also emerged because of the project implementation which was not quite evident before the inception of the project. In addition, this study explored the unique phenomenon of the Shabolombee Gram, where the transformation altering farmers’, livelihoods does not come from the government or the private sector but originates from a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO). Therefore, the government and its development partners may adopt and incorporate the Modified Sustainable Livelihood Framework (MSLF) to ensure the sustainable development.

Taking Stock of Recent Progress in Livelihood Vulnerability Assessments to Climate Change in the Developing World

Over the past few decades, the use of vulnerability assessments has grown substantially to support rural communities in developing countries. These studies aim to help these communities achieve their livelihood goals, such as sustainable resource use and adaptation to global changes, by evaluating their susceptibility to climate change impacts. This systematic review critically examines the extensive body of literature on Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) assessments related to climate change impacts in developing countries. By synthesizing findings from various studies, this review highlights patterns and methodologies used to understand the effects of climate change on vulnerable populations. Key focus areas include geographical distribution, methodological approaches, and the frameworks utilized in vulnerability assessments. The review identifies prominent frameworks, such as the LVI and LVI-IPCC, which integrate indicators of sensitivity, exposure, and adaptive capacity to evaluate climate risks. Findings reveal a concentration of studies in Asia and Africa, with a strong emphasis on agricultural and coastal ecosystems. Methodologically, there is a notable reliance on stratified random sampling to accurately capture community and household-level vulnerabilities. A detailed comparative analysis of the LVI, LVI-IPCC, and Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) is also presented, highlighting their characteristics, benefits, and limitations. The review underscores the need for methodological refinements to better address temporal and regional variations in vulnerability. It concludes with recommendations for future research, integrating broader climate scenarios, exploring sectoral interdependencies, and adopting dynamic approaches to enhance the accuracy and applicability of vulnerability assessments.

Rural land consolidation as an instrument for decreasing farmers' dependence on ecosystem services: Heterogeneity analysis based on consolidation modes and topographic types

Rural land consolidation (RLC) is one of the largest organized activities affecting land use and terrestrial ecosystems, and its effect on ecosystems' spatial patterns and service functions has been closely scrutinized. Previous studies have primarily focused on the response of ecosystem services (ES), but associated changes in farmers' dependence on ES have not yet been adequately explored or completely understood. This study employs a sustainable livelihood framework to identify the mechanism through which RLC affects farmers' dependence on ES, and constructs an index system of dependence on ES (IDES) to quantify farmers' dependence on ES using questionnaire surveys conducted on 949 rural households in Hubei Province, central China. A quasi-experimental difference-in-differences model is subsequently used to investigate the impact of government-dominant mode and new agricultural business entity (NABE)-dominant RLC modes on farmers' dependence on ES across plains and mountainous areas. Results indicated that both RLC modes could decrease farmers' dependence on ES. The reduction effect of the NABE-dominant mode was more significant than that of the government-dominant mode in plains areas. While no significant difference between the two modes is found in mountainous areas. This study broaden research perspectives on RLC effectiveness and aligns with worldwide concerns such as environmental protection and welfare improvement. In addition, the study examine China's experience to offer valuable insight for other developing countries when formulating differentiated RLC policies.

Livelihood Precarity of Migrants: Perspectives of African Refugees in Durban, South Africa

Migrants and refugees face numerous socioeconomic and institutional challenges in the host cities and countries. They are excluded from full participation in the labor market, which makes them vulnerable to poverty. To survive, migrants and refugees join the informal economic sector. Informed by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), the article examines how African refugees in Durban make and maintain their livelihoods, including their encounters with marginalization. Participants were drawn from Congolese, Rwandese, and Burundian community groups living in the inner city of Durban. The snowballing sampling method was key in identifying the participants, while face-to-face interviews were used for data collection. The findings show that African refugees in Durban pursue diverse forms of livelihood in the informal sector. They are faced with numerous challenges, such as a lack of start-up capital, weak social networks to protect themselves and their businesses, bureaucratic challenges, discrimination, and xenophobic attacks. Regardless of these challenges, migrants still forge ahead by starting their businesses and making a living under the circumstances of precarity and marginalization.

Self-fulfilling prophecy in livelihood sustainability: Rural tourism in Pingqian Village, China

This study proposes a conceptual model of villagers' risk perceptions of poverty recurrence. Integrating the sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF) with the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy, the study employed a mixed-method approach in the empirical analyses using data collected over four years in Pingqian Village, China. The study revealed that rural tourism empowered the villagers to improve their physical and financial capital by reducing dependence on cropland. However, interactive vulnerabilities can significantly impact their risk perceptions of poverty recurrence, thus shaping their behaviors in investment decisions and business operations in rural tourism. This raises concerns about potential overreliance on tourism in rural communalities that may undermine sustainability goals. In practical terms, the study presents a mechanism to monitor villagers’ risk perceptions of poverty recurrence at different risk levels. The conceptual and empirical results enrich the SLF and sustainability literature and practice by highlighting the bidirectional relationship between vulnerabilities and livelihood assets.

Not Just Survive, But Thrive: Examining Livelihood Capital, Poverty Reduction, and Sustainable Development in Ethnic Tourism Destinations

Understanding the roles of tourism development in poverty reduction and livelihood capital through a microlens is essential to rural ethnic areas’ sustainable development. However, few assessment methods are available to unravel the complex relationships between these three facets, and gaps remain in measuring residents’ livelihood. Based on the sustainable livelihood approach, this paper first selected core components of the sustainable livelihood framework to construct an evaluation index system and then provided specific indicators and evaluative criteria. Taking villages in China’s Longji Rice Terraces as a sample case, this study employed objective approaches (e.g., the entropy weight method and gray relational analysis) to assess residents’ livelihood capital. The aim was to showcase the sustainability of this area’s livelihood through a microlens. Findings offer several important contributions. First, this study presents a reliable measurement development method and a set of evaluation criteria for sustainable livelihood in tourism contexts, including five forms of capital and 21 indicators. Second, local inhabitants were found to benefit from tourism development; their livelihood options were diversified, especially in terms of growing financial capital. Yet these benefits were not evenly distributed, with notable differences observed across communities. Third, farmers’ livelihood capability did not improve uniformly over time. These findings offer valuable insights for tourism and hospitality stakeholders and can help steer rural regions toward a path of prosperity and growth. Strategies for inspiring entrepreneurship should especially be considered. In closing, theoretical implications are discussed, and suggestions for future work are provided.

Unlocking the potential of rural informal entrepreneurship for poverty reduction in Bangladesh: A sustainable livelihoods perspective

ABSTRACT This study examines the current landscape of rural entrepreneurship in Bangladesh, a sector engaging 75% of the workforce, utilizing the Sustainable Livelihood Framework. Employing a quantitative approach, the research conducts face-to-face interviews with selected entrepreneurs. The findings reveal that 46% of entrepreneurs hold positive perspectives on five key livelihood indicators, with social capital ranking highest at 62% and physical capital lowest at 34%. Analysis of 20 indicators unveils that merely 50% of entrepreneurs express positive opinions for 12 indicators, with many responses hovering around 40%. These results paint a challenging picture of entrepreneurs’ outlook on their lives and livelihoods, providing valuable insights for policymakers, poverty experts, and development practitioners in shaping effective interventions.

The COVID-19 pandemic and dynamics of livelihood assets in the Kwahu South District of Ghana: determinants and policy implications

ABSTRACT The debate on the changes in livelihood assets as a function of health shocks remains inconclusive, thus spurring attention from scientists and development practitioners across the globe. This paper analyses COVID-19-induced changes in the livelihood assets of rural households in Ghana. While content analysis was employed in qualitative data analysis, the quantitative data set was analysed using a binary logistic regression model. The analyses led to the following conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a more significant decline in financial assets than social assets. Although several socio-economic factors determine changes in the livelihood assets of households, the assets base of migrants was disproportionately affected by the pandemic. Further, women were disproportionately affected since market access restrictions significantly affected their income and savings and, consequently, their ability to buy farm necessities. These results suggest the need to emphasise the resilience of financial assets in times of pandemics, especially for migrants. This study provides new insights to inform the sustainable livelihoods framework, emphasising pandemics and changing livelihood strategies. Studies to uncover the coping strategies of migrants in the context of health shocks are required to complement this position.

Adoption of sustainable farming practices in Vietnam: A discourse of the determining factors

To delve into the intricacies of sustainable agricultural practices, our study investigates both the behavioral and non-behavioral factors influencing farmers' decision-making processes. Employing the New Ecological Model (NEP) to capture social factors, our research framework integrates insights from the sustainable livelihood framework, which delineates five crucial types of livelihood capital: (1) human capital, (2) natural capital, (3) financial capital, (4) physical capital, and (5) social capital. This comprehensive approach enables us to incorporate additional non-behavioral factors and their impacts on farmers' decisions. We underscore the pivotal role of farmers' decisions in fostering sustainable agriculture, aligning with seven of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Leveraging survey data collected from 303 Vietnamese farmers, we validate our research framework using two analytical models: Structural Equation Model (SEM) and binary logit analysis. Our findings underscore the significant influence of farmers' risk propensity and concerns regarding food safety and environmental conservation on the adoption of organic farming practices. Notably, farmers' level of knowledge emerges as a critical determinant shaping their inclination towards sustainable agriculture. The study underscores the importance of targeted educational initiatives and awareness campaigns, identifying key determinants such as proximity to green spaces and farm size in shaping farmers' choices towards sustainable practices.