Sustainable Intensification Practices Research Articles

Transitioning practices of vegetable small-scale actors in Vietnam: an interplay of food safety, labor demand, and soil environment

AbstractFood safety is a critical and persistent issue that challenges the sustainability of agri-food systems in Vietnam. The government has launched multiple food safety initiatives, but there is limited understanding of their contribution to changing the practices of small-scale producers and distributors. This study explores these changing practices by applying Social Practice Theory (SPT) to analyze the transitions in everyday routines of small-scale vegetable producers while being embedded in socio-institutional contexts of agri-food system transitions. We conducted semi-structured interviews and survey with small-scale food producers and distributors in Hanoi, Vietnam to examine the transitions in production and post-production practices over the last 20 years and the intersection between smallholding practices and cross-level dynamics. The study revealed, contrary to some common perceptions, that smallholder producers are transitioning towards food safety, with the use of more bio-pesticides and eco-friendly pest control methods. The smallholders also reproduce a variety of (sustainable) intensification practices, including crop rotation, organic fertilization, and soil cultivation, to sustain soil fertility and save labor. However, there are no clear patterns of change for post-production practices, although they have been diversifying under the impacts of urbanization. The findings highlight the interplay of food safety, labor, and soil environment in shaping the transitions of smallholder practices. We suggest that success in improving safety in production practices is feasible, but that this requires more thorough interventions in distribution and consumption practices to transform the food systems at large.

Harnessing stakeholder engagement for sustainable agricultural intensification: contemporary evidence from northern Ghana

This article analyses the indispensable role of sustainable agricultural intensification practices (SAIP) in meeting the needs of a burgeoning human population with limited planetary resources and examines the role of various stakeholders in the adoption of these practices by local farmers. The study setting is the Upper West, a semi-arid region of Ghana. The study employs a stakeholder salience theory and a mixed-method design. Firstly, qualitative data were collected and analysed as a basis for formulating a structured questionnaire administered to beneficiary farmers, which were then analysed using marginal effects from logistic regression. Notably, the study found four sustainable crop cultivation practices and three eco-friendly crop storage methods promoted in the area. Furthermore, the engagement of stakeholders like selected farmers, Traditional authorities, and implementing NGOs had statistically significant effects on the adoption of SAIP. However, these effects were smaller when compared to the direct involvement of all beneficiary farmers in the planning and implementation of the intervention. This suggests that while technocrats and authorities are important, they alone cannot achieve the desired impact of development interventions. Beneficiary farmers are the most critical stakeholders in adopting and promoting SAIP. The article further proposes a conceptual framework for implementing SAIP in agro-based rural communities. This research therefore underscores the importance of sustainable agricultural intensification practices in a resource-constrained world and emphasizes the central role of beneficiary farmers in driving the success of such initiatives.

Contextual realities in sustainable intensification: why do smallholder maize commercializing farmers in Eastern Uganda use sustainable intensification practices

Contextual realities in sustainable intensification: why do smallholder maize commercializing farmers in Eastern Uganda use sustainable intensification practices

Management of maize-legume conservation agriculture systems rather than varietal choice fosters human nutrition in Malawi

Malawi smallholder farmers are facing climate-induced challenges that have increased food and nutrition insecurity in the country, thus sustainable intensification practices has been widely recommended. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of cropping systems with improved varieties on total system productivity and nutrition under different environments. The study involved on-farm experiments in ten communities in Central and Southern Malawi, incrementally established from 2005/2006 to 2018/2019 cropping seasons. Each community had six demonstration plots with three main treatments: conventional ploughing (CP): sole maize grown on seasonally constructed ridges and furrows; no-tillage (NT): sole maize grown on retained ridges with minimum soil disturbance and residue retained; and Conservation agriculture (CA): maize intercropped either cowpea, pigeon pea or groundnut on retained ridges as in NT. Our results show that total system nutrition was higher in CA treatments than NT and CP. The yields of maize were at least 800 kg ha−1 higher in CA and NT than CP despite the variety that was grown. Legume yields were also higher under CA and NT than CP. High protein yield was observed in CA systems (at least 100 kg ha−1 higher than CP) where maize and legume intercrops were rotated with grain legumes. Our results show nutrients and energy gains in CA and NT systems that can be invested in practices that increases the resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change. Conservation agriculture and NT systems have more influence on productivity of smallholder farms, despite the genotypes used (hybrids or OPVs).

Gendered Uptake of Sustainable Intensification Practices among Maize Commercializing Smallholder Farmers in Eastern Districts of Uganda

Commercialization of food crops, such as maize can dynamically shift control over productive resources or accrued income from women to men. This can restrict women’s ability to access or buy productive inputs. However, scanty information is available on how changing gender roles and relations can affect smallholder farmers’ use of sustainable intensification practices. This study described how gender inequalities in access to resources and appropriation of gains affect the uptake of sustainable intensification (SI) practices among maize commercializing farmers in eastern Uganda. Qualitative Survey data collected from a random sub-sample of 72 (36 women and 36 men) maize farmers from 584 maize commercializing smallholder farmers survey participants, was subjected to thematic content analysis. It was intended to follow up four unique profiles of farmers; those who did not use SI practices, the ones who used only intensification (improve maize varieties and fertilizers) or sustainable practices (organic manure and maize-legume intercrop), and those who used joint, one or more sustainable intensification practices. Findings revealed all four profiles to be highly gendered. Only women did not use any SI practice, and only men used intensification practices due to gender roles, responsibilities, and tasks shaped by traditions that give men terminal control over productive assets and gained resources. Both men and women used sustainable and sustainable intensification practices because of the negotiation process and opportunities that gave women more rights over resources. Thus, social-cultural histories and values constrain married women from implementing innovations such as SI practices because these values restrict women’s authority over productive resources. It is recommended that for inclusive transformative interventions to be introduced successfully in rigid patriarchal contexts, it is vital to enhance the negotiation skills of women.

Socioeconomic Implications of Livestock Intensification in Emerging Economies

Purpose: The general objective of the study was to examine the socioeconomic implications of livestock intensification in emerging economies. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to socioeconomic implications of livestock intensification in emerging economies. Preliminary empirical review revealed that while intensification held promise for increasing productivity and improving livelihoods, it also posed risks such as environmental degradation, social inequalities, and animal welfare concerns. Despite these challenges, the research highlighted the importance of supportive policies and institutional frameworks in promoting inclusive and sustainable development. Governments played a crucial role in providing enabling environments for responsible intensification practices, while stakeholder engagement and participatory approaches ensured that the benefits reached all segments of society. Overall, the study emphasized the need for a holistic approach that balanced economic growth with environmental and social considerations to achieve sustainable livestock intensification in emerging economies. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Dependency Theory, Modernization Theory and Political Economy Theory may be used to anchor future studies on socioeconomic implications of livestock intensification in emerging economies. The study provided recommendations aimed at advancing theory, practice, and policy. The research emphasized the need for interdisciplinary approaches to understand the complex dynamics of intensification processes. Practically, it suggested promoting inclusive and sustainable intensification practices tailored to local contexts and involving stakeholders in decision-making. From a policy perspective, enabling environments supporting responsible intensification, including regulatory frameworks and rural infrastructure investments, were recommended. Additionally, integrated approaches to livestock intensification were advocated, recognizing the interconnectedness of social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Overall, implementing these recommendations required collaborative efforts from governments, civil society, the private sector, and researchers to address the challenges associated with livestock intensification in emerging economies. Keywords: Livestock Intensification, Environmental Stewardship, Smallholder Farmers, Rural Infrastructure, Integrated Approaches, Inclusive Growth

Psycho-social factors influencing the adoption of sustainable intensification practices by smallholder rice farmers in Northern Ghana

Psycho-social factors influencing the adoption of sustainable intensification practices by smallholder rice farmers in Northern Ghana

Do combined sustainable agricultural intensification practices improve smallholder farmers welfare? Evidence from eastern and western Kenya

AbstractSmallholder farmers often bundle different sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) practices to boost crop yield and address soil fertility challenges. However, there is a dearth of empirical studies that investigate farmers’ adoption of SAI bundles and their subsequent impacts. Using data from a three‐wave panel survey of smallholder maize‐legume producers in Kenya, we examine the adoption and payoffs from 10 SAI practices clustered into five dominant groups. We use a random effects multinomial logit model to determine the choice of SAI cluster at the plot level while controlling for unobserved individual heterogeneity. The results show that the number of extension contacts, farm labor availability, household wealth, and education of household heads positively and significantly affect the adoption of SAI clusters while renting plots and poor soil quality have negative effects. The multinomial endogenous treatment effects model results reveal significant variability in crop yield, total variable cost, revenue, and net income across the five SAI clusters. The benefits vary by crop system, region, and cropping year, indicating that a one‐size‐fits‐all extension design is unsuitable for farmers. The study suggests the promotion of participatory extension policies that would allow locally adaptable and highly profitable bundles of SAI practices to be identified, refined, and disseminated.

Understanding sustained adoption of conservation agriculture among smallholder farmers: insights from a sentinel site in Malawi

Abstract Smallholder farming systems need climate-proofing and sustainable intensification practices such as conservation agriculture (CA), are promising options. However, there is a general perception that the adoption of CA systems in southern Africa is low. Sentinel sites, where CA has been promoted for a long time, offer forward-looking new insights. This paper, thus, takes a deep dive at Nkhotakota district of Malawi to understand what could have led to the success of CA promotion and subsequent perceived high adoption. We use survey data from 620 farmers, with 298 farmers sampled from treatment areas – known to have had contact with host farmers and 320 from a control group. Overall, 31% of the farmers in both groups adopted full CA over at least a 2-year period. We also find that about 57% of farmers in the treatment area adopted full CA and only 7% of farmers in the control areas. This highlights that longer-term CA promotion with dedicated extension support can enhance the uptake of CA practices. In essence, this paper offers a different perspective to the current narrative that CA systems are too complex and knowledge intensive to be adopted despite its long-term promotion and significant investments. However, there are some nuances: sustained adoption even in sentinel sites is neither 100% nor persistent over the long term. We find an appreciable adoption decay, showing large declines from highs of 57 and 7% in adoption for at least 2 years for treatment and control, respectively, to 12% in the treatment group and practically zero in the control when we condition full CA adoption to at least 7 years. This means that fewer farmers adopted CA for a longer period and suggests some dis-adoption over time even in sentinel sites. The key adoption enablers in the sentinel sites include the availability of training, dedicated longer-term extension support coupled with farmer experiential learning through demonstration plots managed by host farmers. Based on our findings, there is need to consistently promote CA using farmer-centric approaches that include peer-to-peer learning over long periods. This allows farmers time to experiment with different CA options, enable behavioral and lasting change. At policy level, there is need to build and strengthen farmer groups to facilitate easier access to inputs like leguminous crop seeds for farmers practicing CA and to offer market-smart incentives to induce initial adoption in the short term to facilitate sustained adoption.

Farmer Insights Regarding Zero Tillage Systems Against Weeds in the Eastern Gangetic Plains of South Asia

A large amount of literature has now proven that Zero Tillage (ZT) as a part of Conservation Agriculture-based Sustainable Intensification (CASI) practices has the potential to help smallholder farmers in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) of South Asia transition to more productive, profitable, and sustainable production systems. Despite this, changes in weed management under ZT are commonly identified as a constraint to wider adoption, based primarily on quantitative investigations. Yet the contribution of this to farmers’ evaluation and adoption behaviour remains underexplored. To address this issue, we explore farmers’ perceptions of CASI-based herbicide weed management systems using semi-structured interviews from six locations across the EGP. This study identifies a divergence in experiences with herbicides, both geographically (with Sunsari and Bihar more negative than other locations) and in terms of user typologies (where users are overwhelmingly positive, and non-users are overwhelmingly negative). This divergence suggests that an information void exists that has the potential to contribute strongly to the negative evaluation of CASI, as well as potentially negative changes in household labour dynamics. To overcome this, promotional efforts should target education and training programs that address how to effectively spray, potentially with increased emphasis on use of weather forecasting. This would ensure equitable outcomes for household members, and increased interest and use of CASI could be promoted. South Asian J. Agric., Vol. 9, No.1&2, 2022-‘23: 52-63

Analysis of Eco-efficiency and its determinants among Smallholder Vegetable Producers in Eastern Ethiopia

Introduction: This study aimed to analyse eco-efficiency and its determinants for small holder vegetable producers in Eastern Ethiopia. Multi-stage sampling was used to select 256 small-scale vegetable producers in the study area. Methods: The study employed Data Envelopment Analysis to estimate eco-efficiency and Tobit model to identify the sources of differences in the eco-efficiency of farmers. The results of the DEA model revealed that the mean of eco-efficiency was 0.75, indicating that there is still a chance of improving the environmental performance of the farms without compromising the economic output of the farms. Results: The results of Tobit depicted that age, education, training, and adoption of sustainable intensification practices positively affect eco-efficiency, while farm size, farm income, and leadership status of the farmer negatively influence the eco-efficiency of the farm. Conclusion: Due emphasis should be given to promoting the adoption of SIPs and introducing an inclusive approach to educating farmers in the study area.

Two crops are better than one for nutritional and economic outcomes of Zambian smallholder farms, but require more labour

Sustainable intensification practices suitable for smallholders in southern Africa will be needed to counteract the impact of future climate change and soil fertility decline in the region. Diversification of maize-based farming systems with grain legumes could play a key role. Here, we compared the performance of different maize-legume diversification strategies (single-row intercropping, strip cropping, and crop rotation) with sole cropped maize under conventional ploughing and Conservation Agriculture in four Zambian districts in the Eastern and Southern Provinces. These options were assessed using the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF), with metrics representing productive, economic, human, social, and environmental dimensions. Data were collected from on-farm trials over three growing seasons. We found no significant effect of cropping systems on individual maize and legume grain yield across growing seasons, but substantial nutritional and economic benefits of intercropping systems due to simultaneously growing two crops. In particular, maize-legume intercropping strategies (single-row intercropping and strip cropping) resulted in higher energy and protein yield at cropping system level than sole maize and maize-legume rotation, which had positive implications for human nutrition. Although there were increased labour requirements to manage the intercrops, and particularly the strip crops, these cropping systems had much higher net benefits and returns to labour and inputs than the other cropping systems tested. Farmer evaluations however did not show a preference for the intercropping systems over the maize-legume rotation or sole maize, most likely because labour and its availability may be as or more important for farmers than overall cropping system benefits. Soil organic carbon content and soil pH did not differ between the tested cropping systems at the start of the trials and after three cropping seasons, but decreased over this period independently of the cropping system. Overall, the results indicate that maize-legume strip cropping, and single-row intercropping can increase food and nutrition security as well as gross benefits from farming, but this comes at the expense of greater labour requirements throughout the growing season. The latter may be addressed through, e.g., appropriate-scale farm mechanization, if intercropping or strip cropping systems are to become a viable option for labour, not land, constrained farms in Southern Africa.

Gender-disaggregated analysis of sustainable intensification practices adoption: A case of northern Ghana

Agricultural productivity has remained low in Africa, especially among smallholder farmers. Women often suffer resource constraints and access to certain technologies needed to increase productivity relative to men. This study analyzes the effect of gender on the adoption of selected sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) in northern Ghana using a sample of 463 farmers involved in maize and cowpea production. Probit regression analysis revealed that age, membership of a farmer-based organisation (FBO), and perception of ease of adoption (PEC) would likely influence the decision of females to adopt SIPs. FBO membership and ease of adopting technologies affect both male and female farmers to adopt SIPs positively. SIPs adoption decisions by males are influenced by many factors relative to those of females, thus highlighting the complexities involved in agricultural technology adoption. These findings have implications for policymakers and development practitioners working to bridge the gender gap in agricultural productivity, particularly in developing countries. The article makes an empirical contribution to the innovation and technology adoption literature, especially in terms of the factors that drive gender-transformative processes. Strengthening FBOs and utilizing the concept of technology parks to deepen farmers’ perceptions and understanding of SIPs could help bridge the gender gap in technology adoption and improve productivity.

Farmers’ perceived pathways for further intensification of push-pull systems in Western Kenya

Push-pull technology provides farmers in East Africa with an eco-friendly strategy that increases crop yield and household income in smallholder cereal systems by controlling pests and improving soil health. Though promising for a sustainably intensified production, push-pull has been used at limited scale, primarily in maize-and sorghum-based production systems. Expanding the scope, applicability and acceptance of the practice in smallholder farming systems, will leverage the full potential of push-pull as a widely applicable sustainable farming practice. Using key informant interviews and focus group discussions, we explored farmers’ needs and perceived pathways for integrating push-pull and other sustainable intensification practices in synergy with existing cropping systems in Kisumu, Vihiga and Siaya Counties in Western Kenya. We found that farmers in the region typically grow and intercrop a variety of crops, with maize being the most common crop. Farmers commonly practice crop-livestock farming, intercropping, crop rotation, manure and fertilizer use, and use improved varieties to increase maize production. Across the counties, integration of food legumes, agroforestry and crop-livestock farming, were identified as fundamental pathways for stretching the benefits of push-pull. Limitations to farmers’ aspirations and key enablers for facilitating spontaneous adoption of identified sustainable intensification practices for push-pull farming systems are discussed.

In highly-biodiverse tropical landscapes, multiple-objective optimization reveals opportunities for increasing both conservation and agricultural production

In humid tropics, small and medium farming systems are important for producing food but also because they retain rainforest patches with high conservation value. Forest conservation and agricultural production strongly compete for land in Tropical Farming Systems (TFS). Finding solutions that synergize increasing conservation areas and agricultural production is an issue that has yet to be resolved in human-modified tropical landscapes. Achieving this objective requires analyzing how farms could be reorganized to relieve the pressure for production on the land. Pareto-based genetic algorithms that produce a set of solutions that satisfy apparently opposed objectives may tackle multi-objective problems. We explored trade-offs and synergies to increase the profits by sustainable intensification and maintain or increase rainforest areas in five TFS. There was a strong trade-off between conservation and economic profits in all TFS. However, depending on the total farming area, initial configurations and the amount of external inputs used, TFS showed low (two out of five) or high (three out of five) potential to increase forest conservation and profits. In low potential areas, the expansion of conservation areas and profits was only possible by increasing external inputs, primarily due to the limiting farming area and intensification status in those areas. In contrast, in high potential areas it was possible to increase conservation areas and profits through sustainable intensification practices, such as increasing maize silage, changing high for low use-pesticides crops but also reducing variable costs by minimizing cost-supply uses or external feeds. Alternative management and resource allocation options were specific for each TFS. The multi-objective simulation yielded novel results showing that it is possible to overcome the conservation-production antagonism (a regional-global scale issue) by adjusting management at farm (local) scale.

Mediation and moderation roles of resilience capacity in the shock–food-security nexus in northern Ghana

This paper examines how resilience capacity mediates or moderates the relationship between weather shocks and household food security based on two waves of farm household survey and satellite-based weather data in northern Ghana and applying econometric models. Results show that resilience capacity moderate or mediates the negative effects of heat stress and drought on food security. However, the mediating role of resilience capacity in the shock-food security nexus is more stable and stronger than its moderating role. A standard deviation (SD) increase in heat stress reduces household food consumption by 0.71 SD, but resilience capacity effectively moderates this effect by approximately 0.61 SD. For drought, household food consumption is reduced by 0.67 SD, but resilience capacity effectively dampens this negative effect by approximately 0.60 SD. The mediation results, on the other hand, indicate that 537% of the total effect of heat stress on household calorie consumption is explained by the indirect effect through resilience capacity. Similarly, resilience capacity mediates about 74% of the total effect of heat stress on household food consumption. These results suggest that strategies that help improve resilience capacity, such as the adoption of sustainable intensification practices, are critical in enhancing food security in northern Ghana.

Can contract farming support sustainable intensification in agri-food value chains?

Sustainable intensification aims to minimize the negative impacts of the current agricultural system while maintaining productivity and economic outputs. This study demonstrates that contract farming is a potential mechanism to support many, but not all, farmers in adopting sustainable intensification practices. A discrete choice experiment on a hypothetical value chain contract introducing three sustainable intensification practices, namely extended crop rotation, reducing agrochemicals and planting flower strips, was conducted with a sample of 314 north-Italian wheat farmers. The results show that permanently eliminating glyphosate from the plot under contract is strongly resisted by farmers, while farmers have less strong preferences between introducing legumes or oilseeds in rotation, and between temporary or permanent flower strips. Findings also indicate that farmers who are more educated, are not members of cooperatives and who generally prefer more flexible sales arrangements are unlikely to be triggered to adopt sustainable intensification practices through contract farming. Overall, this study indicates that while voluntary contract arrangements can be a potential tool to increase uptake of sustainable intensification practices, they will likely need to be complemented with more public policy intervention in order to bring sustainable intensification practices to scale.

Accounting for Weather Variability in Farm Management Resource Allocation in Northern Ghana: An Integrated Modeling Approach

Smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana face challenges due to weather variability and market volatility, hindering their ability to invest in sustainable intensification options. Modeling can help understand the relationships between productivity, environmental, and economical aspects, but few models have explored the effects of weather variability on crop management and resource allocation. This study introduces an integrated modeling approach to optimize resource allocation for smallholder mixed crop and livestock farming systems in Northern Ghana. The model combines a process-based crop model, farm simulation model, and annual optimization model. Crop model simulations are driven by a large ensemble of weather time series for two scenarios: good and bad weather. The model accounts for the effects of climate risks on farm management decisions, which can help in supporting investments in sustainable intensification practices, thereby bringing smallholder farmers out of poverty traps. The model was simulated for three different farm types represented in the region. The results suggest that farmers could increase their income by allocating more than 80% of their land to cash crops such as rice, groundnut, and soybeans. The optimized cropping patterns have an over 50% probability of increasing farm income, particularly under bad weather scenarios, compared with current cropping systems.

Extrapolation suitability index for sustainable vegetable cultivation in Babati district, Tanzania

Land suitability assessment matches crop requirements with available resources to promote sustainable production. Scaling out of sustainable agricultural intensification practices to suitable biophysical and socio-economic conditions reduces the risk of failure and increases their adoption rate. This study applies a geospatial framework to identify potentially suitable sites for extrapolating two improved vegetable cultivars grown under integrated management practices (IMP's) in Babati District of Tanzania. On-farm trial data on the yield and income of two cultivars were used as a reference. Extrapolation was based on the gridded biophysical and socio-economic layers that limit the production of the two improved vegetable cultivars'. The extrapolation suitability index (ESI) showed the areas where cultivation of the two improved vegetable cultivars under IMP's can be scaled-out with a potentially low risk of failure. We generate maps of the most important limiting factor for each cultivar in every pixel to guide the spatial targeting of appropriate remedial measures. Application of these maps will promote evidence-based scaling out of improved vegetable technologies by the extension and development agencies.

Uptake of agroforestry-based crop management in the semi-arid Sahel – Analysis of joint decisions and adoption determinants

IntroductionAgroforestry plays a vital role in maintaining and developing the resilience and productivity of farms and landscapes. Scientific evidence from the Sahel region suggests that integration of trees and shrubs has the potential to improve temperature and moisture levels whilst providing bio-based fertilizer that contributes to increased yields of annual crops. However, little is known about the factors that influence the diffusion of agroforestry. This study examines joint decisions on the use of agroforestry alongside other complementary agricultural practices and disentangles agroforestry awareness from adoption and disadoption decisions.MethodsOur analysis is based on a comprehensive farm-level dataset covering almost 3,000 farm households in Mali and Senegal. A large number of adoption determinants are utilized, with a special focus on information access, information flows and social groups.ResultsThe findings suggest that extension access and training participation boost awareness of agroforestry-based soil fertility management, while information provided by public extension, NGOs and community members is strongly associated with higher adoption intensity. In the analysis of disadoption, farmer-to-farmers exchange in the community was found to be a key factor in the decision to maintain agroforestry use. Membership in cooperatives and youth groups appear to have a favorable effect on awareness and adoption in Mali, but less so in the Senegalese case. Similarly, only results from Mali show that adoption of agroforestry is accompanied by the adoption of other sustainable intensification practices and lower use of synthetic pesticides.DiscussionWe conclude that in order to support the transition to more widespread agroforestry-based soil fertility management, it is essential to strengthen public and NGO-based advisory systems that fully engage with local knowledge networks.