Green Infrastructure Research Articles

Durability of Steel-Reinforced Concrete Structures Under Effect of Climatic Temporality and Aggressive Agents (CO2, SO2) in Boca del Rio, Veracruz

The development of sustainable infrastructure is essential to address the challenges of climate change and reduce CO2 emissions. The use of alternative materials, such as agro-industrial ashes and silica fume, emerges as a promising option to enhance the durability of concrete and diminish its environmental impact. These materials can partially replace conventional cement, contributing to the construction of more sustainable infrastructure without compromising performance, even under adverse environmental conditions. In this study, we present an analysis of the use of sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and silica fume (SF) as a 15% cement replacement. The behavior of these materials was investigated under coastal conditions, analyzing climatic variables and degrading gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O. Electrochemical techniques were employed to measure corrosion rate and potential, in addition to conducting carbonation and compressive strength tests. The mixtures with a 15% addition of SBA and SF showed improvements compared to conventional mixes. SBA reduced the corrosion rate by 25% and increased compressive strength by 12% after 150 days, while SF enhanced carbonation resistance by 20% and compressive strength by 25%. The incorporation of SBA and SF provides significant durability in coastal environments, contributing to the sustainability of infrastructure exposed to adverse weather conditions.

Commoning as Social Struggle

The article provides an empirical insight into urban initiatives that advocate for better urban mobility infrastructures and outlines a theoretical perspective of commoning infrastructures as a terrain for political struggles. Rather than constructing commons as the interplay of methodologically presumed elements (resources, a community of commoners, and their institutions of commoning) it takes a relational perspective on commoning that asks how activists mobilize and relate heterogeneous elements to make urban mobility infrastructures a common political concern. Based on ethnographic fieldwork on mobility activism in Berlin, the second part of the article illustrates such a relational perspective and presents three modes of commoning. To achieve what is called “mobility transition” (i. e. more sustainable and equitable urban mobility infrastructures), activists rely on mobilizations of knowledge, space, and affect.

Matrizes cimentícias com o uso de resíduos de construção e demolição para redução do impacto ambiental de blocos de pavimentação

The construction industry is responsible for the intensive consumption of natural resources and the generation of large volumes of construction and demolition waste (CDW), which are often disposed of improperly. This research developed concrete blocks using recycled CDW aggregates, promoting sustainability and circular economy by reusing these materials in urban infrastructure. Waste was collected from a recycling plant over five months, selecting Brita 1, Brita 0, and Pó de Brita to compose the concrete mixes. Particle size distribution, bulk density, and specific gravity tests were performed, and blocks and specimens were molded with 100% replacement of natural aggregates by CDW. The compressive strength tests were carried out at 14 and 28 days, while the abrasion test was performed only at 28 days. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to characterize the products. The results indicated a compressive strength of 34.3 MPa at 28 days, close to the minimum required by the standard (35 MPa). XRF analysis showed a predominance of SiO₂, CaO, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, MgO, SO₃, and K₂O oxides, all within normative limits. Leaching and solubilization tests, conducted according to NBR 10005 and NBR 10006, classified the waste as non-hazardous and non-inert. This study demonstrates that using CDW in concrete block production is a viable and sustainable alternative, contributing to waste reduction, material reuse, and the development of sustainable urban infrastructure.

Green Infrastructure Mapping in Almeria Province (Spain) Using Geographical Information Systems and Multi-Criteria Evaluation

Green infrastructure (GI) is increasingly prioritised in landscape policy and planning due to its potential to benefit ecosystems and enhance wildlife conservation. However, due to the uneven distribution of protected areas (PAs) and the fragmentation of habitats more generally, multi-level policy strategies are needed to create an integrated GI network bridging national, regional and local scales. In the province of Almeria, southeastern Spain, protected areas are mainly threatened by two land use/land cover changes. On the one hand, there is the advance of intensive greenhouse agriculture, which, between 1984 and 2007, increased in surface area by more than 58%. On the other hand, there is the growth of artificial surfaces, including urban areas (+64%), construction sites (+194%) and road infrastructures (+135%). To address this challenge, we present a proposal for green infrastructure deployment in the province of Almeria. We combine Geographic Information Systems (GISs) and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques to identify and evaluate suitability for key elements to be included in GI in two key ways. First, we identify the most suitable areas to form part of the GI in order to address vulnerability to degradation and fragmentation. Second, we propose 15 ecological corridors connecting the 35 protected areas of the province that act as core areas. The proposed GI network would extend along the western coast of the province and occupy the valleys of the main rivers. The river Almanzora plays a leading role. Due to its remoteness from the coast and its climatic conditions, it has not attracted intensive greenhouse agriculture and urban development, the main drivers of the transformation and fragmentation of traditional land uses. Around 50% of the area occupied by the proposed corridors would be located in places of medium and high suitability for the movement of species between core areas.

Children’s Perspectives of Neighbourhood Spaces: Gender-Based Insights From Participatory Mapping and GIS Analysis

Although several urban design and planning features, such as community spaces, green infrastructure, and traffic measures that prioritise pedestrians and children, have been identified as important characteristics of child-friendly cities and neighbourhoods, there remains a gap in our understanding regarding the specific elements of children’s daily environments that influence their experiences. This study focuses on the everyday activity spaces of children (aged 9–12) living in physically and socially diverse neighbourhoods of low-to-average income in Ankara, Turkey. Drawing on findings from thematic and qualitative GIS-based analyses of 40 participatory map-based focus groups with 217 children, this study aims to understand how neighbourhood design influences children’s everyday experiences across different neighbourhood types and genders. By visualising children’s perceptions of their neighbourhoods and activity spaces, and thematically analysing their comments related to neighbourhood design features that may facilitate positive and negative experiences, this child-centred study contributes to the limited research on children’s experiences of place. Our findings revealed key neighbourhood design features influencing children’s experiences and highlighted gender-based differences. While natural settings were valued across settings and genders, boys reported more physical activities in open spaces while girls more frequently emphasised the need for accessible playgrounds and natural settings. Children in urban neighbourhoods frequented streets, parks, and local shops more often, while those in suburban and sprawling areas preferred amenities near their homes. The study demonstrates that children’s positive everyday experiences can be supported by modifying the neighbourhood design, providing valuable insights for practitioners and policymakers on developing more child-friendly neighbourhoods.

Evaluation of Agricultural Non-point Source Pollution Infiltration on Clogging and Nitrogen Leaching Effects in BRCs with Different Plants in Dryland Areas.

As high-standard farmland rapidly expands, agricultural non-point source pollution has emerged as a main environmental issue in China. To tackle nitrogen pollution, green infrastructure (GI), especially bioretention cells (BRCs), has been extensively adopted. However, the long-term effectiveness of these systems may be hindered by clogging and nitrogen leaching. In this study, we designed three BRCs simulation devices to investigate the effects of different plants on the removal of TSS TN and NO3-N from runoff through simulated pollutant infiltration experiments. To address this issue, laboratory research has explored the contributions of woody plants like Buxus and herbaceous plants such as Ophiopogon in BRCs, concentrating on their impact on system clogging and nitrogen leaching. The results indicated that, although the total suspended solids (TSS) removal rates in the Buxus and Ophiopogon treatment groups were slightly lower than in the control group, permeability experienced a notable enhancement, with the Buxus group showing a 24.47% increase in permeability. The removal rates of TN and NO3-N in the Buxus group were significantly reduced, decreasing by 31.82% and 41.25%, respectively, in comparison to the control group. After five months, Ophiopogon demonstrated considerably better root growth, with its root length, volume, and surface area all significantly exceeding those of the Buxus group. The choice of plants significantly influenced nitrogen cycling and system clogging, with the reduced removal rates in the Buxus group potentially linked to its weaker root system, lower abundance of actinomycetes, and reduced soil enzyme activity.

Principles for Sustainable Integration of BIM and Digital Twin Technologies in Industrial Infrastructure

As industries evolve towards greater digitalization, integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and digital twin technologies presents a unique opportunity to enhance sustainability in industrial infrastructure. This paper formulates a comprehensive set of principles aimed at guiding the sustainable integration of these technologies within the context of modern industrial facilities, often referred to as “Factories of the Future”. The principles are designed to address critical sustainability challenges, including minimizing environmental impact, optimizing resource efficiency, and ensuring long-term resilience. Through a detailed examination of lifecycle management, data interoperability, and collaborative stakeholder engagement, this work provides a strategic framework for leveraging digital technologies to achieve sustainability goals. The principles outlined in this paper not only promote greener industrial practices but also pave the way for innovation in the sustainable development of industrial infrastructure. This framework is intended to serve as a foundation for future research and practical application, supporting the global shift towards more sustainable industrial operations.

Understanding gap between perception and expectations for artificial intelligence: Implications for sustainable development goals 4 and 9

This research is focused on the gap created in the perception and expectations of Kosovar students in the implementation of artificial intelligence during their learning and education. The research was conducted with students who had attended training on Artificial Intelligence that to identify the gap between their perception and expectations regarding artificial intelligence. The aim of this study is to investigate the understanding gap between perceptions and expectations of artificial intelligence and to provide answers to the research questions posed in this paper. Obejectiv of the study is to shed light on the need for Sustainable Development Goal 4, Quality Education, by emphasizing the importance of inclusive and equitable AI literacy, and also for Development Goal 9, Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure, by fostering innovation and supporting the development of resilient and sustainable AI infrastructure. During the research we used purposive sampling since we already had access to the database showing which students had attended the training and were certified for artificial intelligence by Microsoft. Bazed on the use of adaptive learning technology, wich is one of the ways Artificial Intelligence can have an impact on student psychology, and based on each student's performance, interests and learning style, we concluded this technology tailors the learning experience to them, and learning is more effective and efficient, and motivation and engagement also increase more.

Exploring the challenges and opportunities for sustainability reporting adoption among small and medium enterprises: A case in a developing country in Asia

Sustainability has turned into a critical focus for businesses, drawing considerable interest from the commercial sector and scholarly environments. While empirical investigations have been conducted regarding sustainability reporting within small and medium enterprises, only a limited number of companies are subjected to increased pressure to adopt sustainability reporting practices, thereby ensuring enhanced transparency and disclosure in their financial and sustainability disclosures. This research, framed by Institutional Theory, delves into how challenges in sustainability reporting obstruct organizations from properly evaluating and sharing their progress on sustainability aims. With an explanatory research framework in place, we circulated survey questionnaires to 400 participants, who were randomly drawn from a population of 28,927 registered SMEs in Metro Manila, Philippines. The application of Interpretative Structural Modelling and MICMAC Analysis revealed that the absence of regulatory frameworks, governmental assistance, and sustainability infrastructure constitutes the most critical obstacles impacting other determinants. In contrast, neither the deficiency in sustainability awareness nor the inadequacy of training and skills demonstrated a considerable impact on the other identified barriers. This study clarifies the complex interactions and interrelations among the obstacles to sustainability reporting, thus providing significant perspectives for organizations aiming to overcome these difficulties. The findings suggest that business leaders and stakeholders can formulate targeted strategies and interventions to facilitate the adoption of sustainability reporting practices within organizations. The application of the institutional theory framework highlights that pressures arise from a diverse array of institutional actors, including regulators, customers, and local communities, which collectively shape corporate behavior and reporting methodologies.

Spatiotemporal Changes and Driving Mechanisms of Ecosystem Service Supply–Demand Contradictions Under Urbanization

Clarifying the driving mechanisms of ecosystem service (ES) supply and demand under urbanization is of significant importance for urban ecological planning and management. However, how the balance of ES supply and demand and its driving mechanisms vary with the degree of urbanization has been little studied. In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal changes and the correlations between ES supply and demand and the degree of urbanization in the Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area (ZZMA) from 2000 to 2020 and further explored the driving mechanisms behind these changes. The results showed that, (1) between 2000 and 2020, the ZZMA experienced a deficit in comprehensive ES supply and demand, and regions with rapid urbanization development were more likely to trigger imbalances in ES supply and demand; (2) the spatial mismatch between low–high ES supply and demand was primarily distributed in the built-up areas of various cities, while the high–low spatial mismatch was mostly found in forest and grassland areas; (3) the comprehensive urbanization level of the ZZMA was spatially negatively correlated with the ratio of ES supply and demand. Regions with lower ES balance were more susceptible to disturbances caused by urbanization; (4) population density was the key factor influencing the supply and demand of carbon sequestration, oxygen release, water conservation, and food provision services, while the proportions of forest land and construction areas had the greatest influence on the supply and demand of air purification and leisure services. It is important to ensure the ecological status of the northwestern, southwestern, and central mountainous and forested areas; maintain the agricultural status of the main grain-producing areas in the eastern plains; strengthen ecological restoration and green infrastructure in built-up areas; and formulate differentiated management policies to promote the sustainable supply of ES and safeguard the ecological security of the region.

The state and future of extreme heat studies in Southeast Asian megacities: risk, impacts and adaptation strategies in a warming world

Abstract Southeast Asian cities are increasingly affected by heat-related phenomena and various climate-related disasters; however, research on urban heat in this region remains limited compared to other areas. This paper employs bibliometric and thematic analyses to investigate studies on extreme heat in mega-urban areas of Southeast Asia, with a particular focus on the risks and impacts faced by vulnerable populations, as well as their adaptation and mitigation strategies. The bibliometric analysis visualises the research landscape, identifying key clusters and highlighting prevalent themes and gaps. It reveals a predominant emphasis on characterising extreme heat and analysing urban temperature variations through satellite and meteorological data, which underscores a significant lack of research on the socio-economic factors affecting at-risk communities. The thematic analysis further examines how existing studies address these socio-economic vulnerabilities and evaluates the adaptation strategies employed, particularly concerning land use changes driven by population growth. Our findings indicate that, while there are studies addressing urban heat in Southeast Asia, their quantity is relatively small compared to the extensive body of research focused on other regions. Strategies to mitigate the effects of extreme heat on mental and social well-being emphasise the importance of green infrastructure and public spaces. There is also a pressing need to enhance urban planning and design to ensure that adaptation measures are inclusive of at-risk, lower-income communities. Understanding the complexities of the risks and impacts of extreme heat on urban populations is crucial for developing effective, context-specific adaptation strategies that prioritise the needs of vulnerable populations and promote equitable, sustainable urban development.

PROSPECTS FOR UKRAINIAN PRODUCERS TO ENTER THE EU MARKET OF CABLE AND WIRE PRODUCTS

This article investigates the potential for Ukrainian cable and wire manufacturers to access the European Union market, where a growing demand for energy-efficient and sustainable solutions is driven by the rapid expansion of renewable energy sources and an accelerated pace of digitalization across industries. The research provides an analysis of the European cable and wire market's current state and development trends, identifying the primary drivers of growth, including the expansion of smart grids and renewable energy projects. Emphasis is placed on the competitive landscape, detailing key industry players who lead the sector by meeting stringent EU regulations and embracing innovation to provide advanced cable solutions. The study examines the economic and regulatory barriers Ukrainian manufacturers face to penetrate the EU market, highlighting the rigorous product certification standards required for compliance, such as CE, CPR, RoHS, and REACH certifications. These standards ensure that products meet high requirements for quality, safety, and environmental impact, which are essential for market access but present significant challenges for companies unfamiliar with EU compliance processes. The article illustrates the strategic approaches, adjustments, and resource investments required to establish a foothold in this competitive environment by analyzing a successful case of a Ukrainian company entering the European cable and wire market. Furthermore, the article evaluates the export potential for Ukrainian cable products, noting the unique competitive advantages that Ukrainian manufacturers may leverage, such as cost-effective production and geographical proximity to the EU. The findings emphasize that Ukrainian producers can enhance their competitive position with targeted state support, a focus on meeting EU standards, and engagement in strategic partnerships with European companies. By developing these capabilities, Ukrainian cable manufacturers have the potential to meet the EU market's increasing demand and contribute to sustainable infrastructure projects that align with Europe's environmental goals. Thus, this research highlights the importance of an integrated approach that combines regulatory compliance, strategic partnerships, and innovation as Ukrainian manufacturers aim to capitalize on the growing opportunities within the European Union's dynamic cable and wire sector.

‘Green icing on the Gray Cake?’ Green infrastructure in federal enforcement action

ABSTRACT A growing number of local governments are adopting Green Infrastructure (GI) as a strategy for urban stormwater management. In the United States, GI has gained particular momentum through federal initiatives. Previous studies have identified regulatory factors playing a pivotal role in the adoption of GI at the local level. However, the integration of GI with federal enforcement actions has received limited research attention. This study examines the first generation of federal consent decrees with GI provisions to provide insights into federal GI policy and local GI planning. The findings reveal inconsistency in GI requirements, with some cases merely encouraging GI adoption, while others mandating a more specific approach to planning and implementation. Drawing on existing GI scholarship, the results of this study suggest the establishment of universal requirements, such as piloting projects, defining success criteria, and incorporating equity considerations into local GI planning.

Case Study: Impact Analysis of Roof-Top Green Infrastructure on Urban System Sustainability in San José, CA

This paper presents results from a case study focusing on analyzing impacts of Green Infrastructure (GI) on sensible and latent heat fluxes, urban microclimate and the subsequent water–energy nexus components of an urban infrastructure system. The case study, focusing on the campus of a public university in San José, CA, aimed to quantify the pre- and post-conditions for a hypothetical GI implementation, which is in support of San José State University’s (SJSU) robust sustainability initiatives, which are also aligned with Silicon Valley’s broader strategic goals. The results revealed that a reduction of 0.3 °C in the average daily peak maximum temperature on campus could be achieved by the GI implementation. Air-conditioning related energy use was projected to decrease by 1.28%, monthly water use by 7052 m3, and it would result in an estimated reduction of approximately 2800 kWh in the water–energy nexus. In addition to lowering the campus’s carbon footprint, GI therefore offers significant economic and environmental benefits in terms of reductions in the urban air temperature, energy usage and water demand. This study provides valuable information for policy makers and low impact development water infrastructure managers considering GI implementation.

The influences of anthropogenic modification after the Great East Japan Earthquake on ground insects and their relationship with vegetation

ABSTRACT On the Pacific coast of Northeastern Japan, tidal embankments and coastal forests were constructed following the Great East Japan Earthquake. Although coastal forests are regarded as green infrastructure, the impact of their reconstructions on ecosystems is concerning. To mitigate these impacts on the Sendai coast of Miyagi prefecture, non-modified areas were established, and coastal sand was covered over the mounds constructed as coastal forest beds. This study surveyed the distribution of ground insects and vegetation in this area to evaluate differences associated with these anthropogenic modifications and mitigations. The results showed that coastal insect abundance and vegetation coverage were lower on the mounds compared to the areas without afforestation or mounding. However, inland insect abundance and vegetation coverage was higher on the landward side of the tidal embankment compared to the seaward side, regardless of the mounds. On the landward side of the tidal embankment, coastal insect abundance was lower when inland vegetation coverage was dense. Additionally, no quantitative differences in coastal insects and plants were observed between the sand-covered mounds and not covered mounds. We suggest that the influence of green infrastructures such as coastal forests on the native ecosystem should be considered.

A blue–green ratio of urban wetlands as an ecosystem health indicator: the case of urban sprawl in Nagpur, India

ABSTRACT Rampant urban sprawl has affected the structure and function of existing urban green and blue spaces, exposing developing cities to unexpected disaster events. Drawing on a mixture of secondary information supported by GIS and field-based studies, we assessed the impact of growing impervious surfaces on the dynamic zones of urban wetlands in Nagpur, India. We compared decadal data (2000-2020) to understand the pattern of wetland loss and its drivers in the region. Our findings reveal a significant loss of wetland structure and area over the past two decades, raising alarming concerns regarding ecological and economic repercussions. To address these issues, we propose a blue–green buffer-based assessment approach that incorporates local knowledge and observations along with proactive monitoring of ecosystem health. Our study highlights the urgency of reducing the spatial complexity of landscape patches, restoring wetland buffers, declaring wetland buffers as no-go zones, and promoting corridor connectivity to urban wetlands to improve urban blue infrastructure health. Multi-sectoral and stakeholder cooperation, involvement, and strict enforcement of the Wetland Rules (2017) by local governing bodies can help build urban resilience by protecting urban blue–green infrastructure.

Electric Vehicles for a Flexible Energy System: Challenges and Opportunities

As the adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) accelerates, driven by increasing urbanization and the push for sustainable infrastructure, the need for innovative solutions to support this growth has become more pressing. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology presents a promising solution by enabling EVs to engage in bidirectional interactions with the electrical grid. Through V2G, EVs can supply energy back to the grid during peak demand periods and draw power during off-peak times, offering a valuable tool for enhancing grid stability, improving energy management, and supporting environmental sustainability. Despite its potential, the large-scale implementation of V2G faces significant challenges, particularly from a technological and regulatory standpoint. The success of V2G requires coordinated efforts among various stakeholders, including vehicle manufacturers, infrastructure providers, grid operators, and policymakers. In addition to the technical barriers, such as battery degradation due to frequent charging cycles and the need for advanced bidirectional charging systems, regulatory frameworks must evolve to accommodate this new energy paradigm. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of V2G technology, focusing on different perspectives—such as those of users, vehicles, infrastructures, and the electricity grid. This study will also explore ex ante, ex post, and ongoing assessment studies, alongside the experiences of pioneer cities in implementing V2G.

Similarities and Dichotomies Between Nature-Based Solutions and Green Infrastructure: a Systematic Literature Review

Objective: The study seeks to address the following question: What are the similarities and dichotomies between green infrastructure (GI) and nature-based solutions (NBS) from the perspective of Brazilian researchers, and how do the identified solutions mitigate the depletion of urban ecosystem services? Method: A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) was conducted using the PRISMA protocol in research within the CAPES Journal database. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were original texts, peer-reviewed, published in national and international journals in Portuguese, covering the themes of NBS, GI, informal settlements, and public open space. After reviewing the 90 identified texts, a final selection of 41 texts was made for the SLR. Originality/Value: These texts were analyzed from a novel perspective, bringing together the themes of GI, NBS, ecosystem services protection, and urban land use. Results and Discussion: The study identified the authors’ views on the pressures of urbanization on ecosystem services and the solutions for their protection. It was concluded that the concepts of NBS and GI are often conflated in most approaches and that adopting urbanization associated with nature faces conceptual, operational, and managerial challenges. Research Implications: The research provides insights into the integration of GI and NBS in urban planning to address the challenges of uncontrolled urbanization and the degradation of ecosystem services.

Research trends related to road innovation in civil construction of public spaces

Road innovation is transforming civil construction by introducing technologies and approaches that improve the efficiency, safety and sustainability of transportation infrastructure. These traffic management systems and real-time monitoring sensors optimize vehicular flow and minimize congestion. The objective of the research is to analyze research trends related to road innovation in civil construction of public spaces. The research approach is mixed, combining qualitative and quantitative methods. A descriptive and retrospective bibliometric analysis was carried out, which was complemented with a documentary review, developed in the Google academic database, Scielo and SCOPUS. The behavior of the researches was decreasing, characterized by a polynomial function with a maximum peak in 2020 of 27 researches. Research in environmental sciences in China predominated. Three lines of scientific research and their main thematic nuclei were identified and explored as key categories and systematized in order to recognize the trends of road innovation in the civil construction of public spaces. The main results were introduced in China with analysis of impacts on the population, use of geographic information systems, environmental pollution studies, among others. Despite international efforts to develop sustainable strategies for the construction and management of public spaces, there are still significant challenges to be addressed to ensure innovation and sustainability in this area.

Advancing sustainable EV charging infrastructure: A hybrid solar-wind fast charging station with demand response

This study aims to design an efficient hybrid solar-wind fast charging station with an energy storage system (ESS) to maximize station efficiency and reduce grid dependence. The research employs Monte Carlo simulation to capture renewable energy source (RES) uncertainties, models stochastic electric vehicles (EVs) driver behavior and fleet diversity, and utilizes an Erlang B queuing model for EV load demand estimation. A hybrid optimization approach combining the Binary-Gravitational Search Optimization Algorithm (B-GOA) and the Non-dominated Crowding Sort Optimization Algorithm (NCSOA) is implemented for efficient optimization in a combined binary-continuous solution space. Results demonstrate superior performance of the proposed approach compared to existing methods, with high-RES penetration significantly reducing grid reliance. This study contributes to advancing sustainable EV charging infrastructure development and enhancing overall grid stability through improved load flexibility and demand response management. The analysis reveals Scenario IV as the most economically viable, with the highest Net Present Value of 1,025,895.32€. Most scenarios favor 5 chargers (44–46 kW) and 4 Type 3 wind generators. Battery capacity varies widely (108–372 kWh), as does grid connection (0–292 kW). Despite varying initial investments, Scenarios II-VII show a consistent 4-year Internal Rate of Return, indicating good economic potential across different configurations.