Sustainable Cocoa Production Research Articles

Integrating life cycle assessment and multi criteria decision making analysis towards sustainable cocoa production system in Indonesia: An environmental, economic, and social impact perspective

Sustainable Cocoa production practices should be investigated comprehensively to address sustainability requirements and mitigate Cocoa production issues in Indonesia. This study aims to identify the sustainable Cocoa production system considering the environmental, economic, and social impacts. Life cycle framework and multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) were integrated to obtain the study's objectives by comparing Cocoa monocropping system (CM) and Cocoa intercropping systems (IC). The result indicated that in the environmental sustainability aspect, the monocropping system (CM) showed higher performance as indicated by the lower environmental impact in all indicators; for example, CM emitted a lower Global Warming Potential (GWP) that has a lower margin of 34.5–55.9 % compared to the intercropping system (IC-I and IC-II). In the economic aspect, both on the short-term and long-term analysis, the Cocoa intercropping system (IC-II) generated higher value-added and economic feasibility, with a higher profit margin of 150–205 % compared to CM and IC-1. Along with the increase of economic benefits in IC II, this system also significantly provides social benefits, as presented by the higher social index margin of 4.9–23.7 % compared to other systems. Furthermore, by applying decision-making analysis, the result determines the highest index on the Cocoa intercropping system II (IC-II). These findings highlight that applying the intercropping system II is recommended to overcome the cocoa issue at the farmer and decision-maker levels. Additionally, the proposed method that combined LCA-MCDM can be applied to another agricultural commodity to achieve sustainable agriculture production.

Impact of High-density Planting Spacing on Physiological Traits of Cocoa Grown under Coconut Trees

High-density planting (HDP) maximizes land productivity. Optimizing cocoa spacing under coconut trees enhances physiological traits and yield potential. Despite cocoa's integration into coconut agroforestry, spacing's impact on cocoa physiology is unclear. Studying this influence provides insights for better planting strategies, improved crop performance, and sustainable cocoa production in agroforestry settings. The experiment was conducted at the Coconut Farm of the Horticultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Employing a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with eight treatments replicated three times, the study aimed to explore how different spacing levels influence physiological traits in cocoa cultivation. The treatments involved in the experiment included a double row of cocoa planted between two rows of coconut trees, with spacing configurations as follows: T1 (3m x 1.2m), T2 (3m x 2m), T3 (3m x 2.5m), and T4 (3m x 3m). Additionally, a single row of cocoa between two coconut rows was examined, with spacings represented by T5 (1.5m), T6 (2m), T7 (2.5m), and T8 (3m). Results indicated distinct patterns among spacing treatments, with significant differences observed in various physiological characteristics. Notably, T1 (3m x 1.2m) demonstrated the highest leaf area (462.71cm2) and leaf area index (4.85), while T8 (3m) exhibited the highest light interception (74.12%). Additionally, T3 (3m x 2.5m) showcased the highest chlorophyll index (40.52) in cocoa leaves. These findings underscore the importance of spacing configurations in influencing key physiological parameters in cocoa cultivation, providing valuable insights for optimizing planting practices.

Complex cocoa agroforestry systems shaped within specific socioeconomic and historical contexts in Africa: Lessons from Cameroonian farmers

CONTEXTIn the humid tropics, the socioecological advantages of family-based, multistory agroforestry systems are well recognized. Yet public policies tend to focus on conservation and land-sparing strategies alongside the promotion of modern intensive agriculture, neglecting these biodiverse agroecosystems, which are in decline. This is a particularly central issue in cocoa cultivation. In Africa's two largest cocoa-producing countries (Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana), cocoa plantations with few associated trees contribute to deforestation and biodiversity loss. In contrast, in regions like Cameroon, biodiversity-rich cocoa agroforests prevail. Considering global changes and rising cocoa demand, it is crucial to preserve and develop these agroforestry systems that reconcile cocoa production with ecosystem services. OBJECTIVEThis study, conducted in Cameroon between 2013 and 2017, aimed to pinpoint the socioeconomic factors influencing the characteristics, maintenance, and degradation of cocoa agroforests, with the ultimate goal of identifying intervention strategies to promote their preservation and development. METHODSThe study collected data from (i) on-field measurements in 95 cocoa agroforestry plots, (ii) interviews with the 95 farmers managing the plots, and (iii) historical interviews with 50 key informants. We focused on five sites across a gradient of population density, encompassing various socioecological environments and types of cocoa agroforests. Through thematic and statistical analyses, we evaluated differences between the five sites. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSOur results indicated contrasting management practices, dendrometric structure, species composition, and cocoa yields between sites. These contrasts largely reflected socioeconomic factors and site-specific dynamics. Cocoa agroforests were less rich in biodiversity in sites where farmers with capital using hired labor had acquired land than in sites where family farmers predominated. A trade-off was found between the richness of companion trees and cocoa yields. Plots managed by smallholder family farmers near urban areas tended to better reconcile cocoa production and biodiversity conservation. These farmers had gradually transformed their traditional agroforests to adapt to increasing demographic pressure by integrating diverse fruit tree species, using pesticides sparingly, and introducing selected cocoa varieties mixed with older varieties. SIGNIFICANCEThe small-scale family-managed cocoa agroforests, which incorporate fruit species as described in this study, could serve as a model for a more sustainable cocoa production strategy. However, developing such a strategy would require greater investment and support from policymakers. This includes supporting the marketing of products from companion trees, stabilizing cocoa prices at a high level, and implementing land policies that protect small and medium-sized family farmers.

Incentives-adoption-food security: Implications for sustainable cocoa production in Ghana.

This study investigates the adoption of the Cocoa Rehabilitation Programme (CRP), aiming to understand the factors influencing farmers' participation and assess the impact on food security. The research gathered quantitative data from 385 cocoa farmers in the Osino Cocoa District, Eastern region, Ghana. Mean, frequency, Tobit and ordered logit regression models were used to analyse the data. Results reveal that incentives like farm maintenance without a charge, extension access, monetary rewards regular farm monitoring and free tree-cutting strongly promote CRP adoption. Gender, age, education, and various incentives significantly influence adoption levels. The study revealed that practices like weedicide-free farming, zero burning, and efficient shade management play a substantial role in improving the food security of farmers. The paper contributes to existing literature by offering a comprehensive analysis of both monetary and non-monetary incentives, adoption patterns, and outcomes, particularly regarding food security in the context of cocoa production. The study suggests a multifaceted approach to enhance CRP efficacy and address the complex dynamics of sustainable agricultural initiatives.

Insecticides may compromise the benefits of tree-crop diversification on arthropod biodiversity in cocoa agroforestry smallholdings

ABSTRACT Arthropods play vital roles in ecosystem functions, yet their distribution is subjected to environmental factors. Hence, this study investigates the impact of habitat features on arthropod communities within cocoa smallholdings under different farming practices: agroforestry and monoculture systems. We conducted arthropod sampling using yellow sticky traps and assessed the habitat features at each plantation twice to capture temporal variations in arthropod populations. The study recorded 2945 individual arthropods belonging to eight different functional groups. The most abundant functional group was saprophagous, followed by phytophagous, parasitoid, predator, mycetophagous, frugivorous, palynivore, and nectarivorous group. Using Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs), we found that the abundance of phytophagous and predatory arthropods increases with leaf litter, while it decreases with saprophagous arthropods. Our findings suggest that tree-crop diversification within cocoa smallholdings can play a significant role in preserving higher arthropod biodiversity, particularly when these smallholdings remain free from chemical insecticide use. Canopy cover was also found to positively affect the variability of arthropods indicating that it is a crucial factor affecting arthropod biodiversity. This study underscores the significance of integrating agroforestry systems into cocoa production landscapes, particularly those utilizing agrochemicals, to support diverse arthropod communities and promote sustainable cocoa production.

A sustainable and ecological approach to integrated cocoa pest management in Indonesia

Cocoa is one of Indonesia’s leading plantation crops, playing a crucial role in providing employment, generating foreign exchange, and income for farmers. However, many cocoa plantations are old and damaged due to inadequate maintenance and pest attacks. Farmers frequently apply crop management practices without considering the environmental impact, such as using inorganic fertilizers, chemical pesticides and herbicides, and intensive land exploitation. There is a need to increase sustainable cocoa production while preserving environmental quality and resources. The strength and weaknesses of all available resources supporting cocoa production including integrated pest management were analysed by collecting primary and secondary data in cocoa production centre. Sustainable and ecological approach which utilizes natural resources efficiently without harming the environment with technological support were used. Research and extension institutions in Indonesia which developed technologies to address pest problems are also considered in synthesizing recommendation of sustainable cocoa IPM.

Cocoa agroforestry in Brazil through a public-private partnership

Historically, Brazil was a significant cocoa producer, primarily in the Amazon region, but since the 1970s, cocoa production became increasingly replaced by extensive livestock farming. What production remained, was halted by a fungal epidemic, resulting in Brazil becoming a net importer of cocoa beans. Thanks to recent sustainable development programmes and the emergence of the bioeconomy, Brazil has since experienced renewed interest in cocoa cultivation, especially in cocoa agroforestry. Initiatives such as Mondelez's Sustainable Cocoa Production project aim to promote sustainable cocoa production, with a focus on environmental regulations and good agricultural practices. The project focuses on two regions, Bahia and Pará. In Bahia, efforts are directed towards rejuvenating cocoa crops in cabruca systems, a traditional agroforestry system where cocoa is cultivated beneath native tree canopies. Small-scale farmers received training and experimental plots demonstrated that proper management practices could control fungal disease and increase cocoa production significantly, generating increased income. In Pará, cocoa agroforestry systems are promoted as an alternative to cattle ranching, which destroyed forests to create, now degraded, pasturelands. While restoration efforts are challenging, agroforestry systems showed promising financial returns compared to cattle ranching. Local farmer organisations also benefitted from workshops and ongoing mentoring regarding their management and business capacities. A failure of the project was that in some instances, agroforestry systems were promoted more as a way to produce cocoa than as an opportunity to diversify, which must be the priority. New due diligence initiatives in Europe have also highlighted the importance of traceability and sustainability in cocoa production, posing new challenges for Brazil’s small-scale farmers. The cocoa agroforestry systems in Bahia and Pará have, nonetheless, shown potential for sustainable local development in Brazil. To ensure their success and sustainability in the long term, there must be continued support systems for farmers and value must be ascribed to the immense product diversity of cocoa agroforestry.

Dynamic cocoa agroforestry: 25 years of experience in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Despite cocoa traditionally being grown in agroforestry systems, monoculture farming now dominates in major producing countries like Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. Globally, interest is growing to return once more to cocoa agroforestry, due to its many benefits, including biodiversity conservation, temperature and water cycle regulation, and carbon sequestration. The article reports on a study which analysed cocoa agroforestry plots of smallholder farmers in Alto Beni, Bolivia. These systems are characterised by the high diversity and density of companion trees. The model plot, managed under dynamic agroforestry principles, showed variability in cocoa yields but these increased over time. Additional income was also yielded from companion crops, which provide timber for harvest and fruits for sale and consumption, improving income diversification, food security and food sovereignty. Dynamic agroforestry systems, therefore, have higher labour intensity but also higher income compared to monocrop cocoa production systems, which is supported by the the SysCom Bolivia trial of 2017–2019. Dynamic agroforestry systems are also shown to increase biodiversity, offer resilience against climate change, and improve farmer’s ratings of happiness. The article emphasises the importance of agroforestry systems for sustainable cocoa production, highlighting its provision of economic benefits alongside environmental and social advantages. To maximise the potential of agroforestry systems, there is a need for continued research and long-term data collection for continuous improvement of management practices.

Agroforestry Systems of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in the Ecuadorian Amazon

Agroforestry systems in the Ecuadorian Amazon play a vital role in environmental conservation and the promotion of sustainable agriculture. Therefore, it is crucial to demonstrate the benefits of the associated species within these production systems. This study aimed to assess the impact of agroforestry systems on cocoa yield, carbon sequestration, earthworm presence, and the nutritional contribution of companion species linked to cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) cultivation under agroforestry systems. The research was conducted at INIAP’s Central Experimental Station of the Amazon using a randomized complete block design with three replications. The agroforestry arrangements were: (1) monoculture; (2) forest (Cedrelinga cateniformis Ducke); (3) fruit forest (Bactris gasipaes Kunth); (4) service (Erythrina poeppigiana (Walp.) O.F.Cook); and (5) forest + service (E. poeppigiana + C. cateniformis). The results indicated that agroforestry systems showed better results than the monoculture in terms of yield (532.0 kg ha−1 compared to 435.4 kg ha−1) and total stored carbon (33.0–42.0 t ha−1 compared to 39.6 t ha−1). Additionally, agroforestry systems provided higher levels of Mg, B, and Ca, contributing to both crop yield and the presence of earthworms. These findings suggest a positive influence of companion species, improving soil nutrition through biomass incorporation and promoting environmental benefits (carbon sequestration). Therefore, agroforestry systems will support sustainable cocoa production in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Making Climate-Smart Cocoa Inclusive: Towards a Framework for Gender Transformation

ABSTRACT Climate-Smart Cocoa (CSC), a strategic offshoot of the wider Climate-Smart Agriculture, is gaining ground in Ghana, a cocoa export-dependent country. CSC is imperative, given the rapidly declining forests, prolonged periods of drought, pest and disease infestations, and fluctuating cocoa yields attributed to climate variability and change. Although many interventions are instituted to restore sustainable cocoa production, they are largely technicist because they do not pay attention to gender relations of production in the communities. Given the context of the embeddedness of gender inequality in access to resources, we used some CSC interventions in Ghana to reflect on the lingering questions of CSC production practices. We relied on CSC project documents, extant literature, farmer surveys and qualitative data to highlight the need for climate-smart agricultural approaches to be sensitive to structural and systemic issues that exclude female farmers. We argue that transforming norms that perpetuate unequal access to land, labour, input and extension services between men and women should be central to approaches that aim to promote sustainable and ecologically sound agricultural practices in cocoa production systems.

Soil fertility indices in cocoa agroforests under organic and conventional management in Suhum, Eastern Region of Ghana

Abstract Deforestation and declining soil fertility are major obstacles for productive cocoa production in West Africa. To improve sustainability of this production system, countries like Ghana promoted agroforestry technologies and introduced organic certification of cocoa agroforests. However, for West Africa, which produces 70% of the world’s cocoa, studies comparing soil fertility under conventional and organic management, which is an important factor for sustainable cocoa production, are rare. Hence this study aimed at investigating differences in soil physico-chemical and microbial properties at 0–10 cm and 10–30 cm depth of traditional cocoa agroforests under organic versus conventional management in four villages with each three farms in Suhum Municipality, Eastern Region of Ghana. Electrical conductivity, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (N), SOC/total N, and extractable potassium (K) in the topsoil were 51%, 35%, 30%, 11%, and 47% respectively, lower (p < 0.05) under conventional than under organic management. On average, topsoil under conventional management recorded 29% higher NH4+-N concentration and 27% lower NO3−-N concentrations than topsoil under organic management. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in the topsoil of farms under organic management were 48% and 57%, respectively, greater than under conventional management. Contrarily, conventional management significantly increased the metabolic quotient (qCO2) in topsoil compared with organic management, indicating a higher demand of soil micro-organisms for maintenance energy due to the use of herbicides and pesticides. In cocoa agroforests, conventional management has adverse effects on soil chemical and microbial properties. Hence transitioning from conventional management to organic management is beneficial to maintain soil fertility.

The effect of producer groups on the productivity and technical efficiency of smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana

Producer groups are influential in Ghana’s cocoa value chain. They facilitate training, extension, education and inputs to their members. Still, there is no study on the impact of these producer groups on the technical efficiency and productivity of smallholder cocoa farmers. Using data from 217 and 199 members and non-members of cocoa producer groups, this study aimed to analyse producer groups’ impact on smallholder farmers’ technical efficiency and yield. The truncated normal distribution stochastic frontier model was adopted to estimate the farmers’ technical efficiency. Since the model showed an issue of inefficiency among the farmers, we added socio-demographic and institutional variables to account for determinants of inefficiency. Finally, we adopted an endogenous treatment regression model to analyse producer groups’ impact on the farmers’ technical efficiency by accounting for observed and unobserved biases. The study results show that farm size, labour, and capital significantly positively impact the partial elasticity of production. Age, education, use of hybrid cocoa, involvement in off-farm jobs, extension access, and producer group membership significantly affect inefficiency. The results further show that producer group membership significantly impacts technical efficiency and yield from the endogenous treatment regression model. To deal with the issues of non-participating in the producer groups, the study recommends that producer groups should be made accessible to farmers. Policymakers can promote the formation and strengthening of producer groups, leading to improved productivity and technical efficiency among cocoa farmers. This approach empowers farmers, enhances their access to resources and knowledge, and enables them to collectively address common challenges, ultimately contributing to sustainable cocoa production and better livelihoods for cocoa farming communities.

Effects of rock phosphate and PK mineral fertilizer on soil fertility and cocoa production in south-central Côte d'Ivoire

Côte d'Ivoire is the world's leading cocoa producer, but sustainable cocoa production is threatened by, among other things, the country's dwindling forest reserves and declining soil nutrients, mainly phosphorus. To remedy the decline in soil fertility, a study of a mineral amendment was carried out in south-central Côte d'Ivoire to ensure the sustainability of cocoa production. Specifically, the aim was to evaluate the effects of rock phosphate (RP) and PK mineral fertilizer on soil fertility and cocoa production at Divo, over three years of trials. The experimental set-up was a Fisher block design, with 4 replications for 5 treatments. The results showed that, in terms of soil fertility, treatments receiving rock phosphate generally had good assimilable phosphorus content (≥ 11.5 Cmolkg-1), a Ca/Mg ratio of between 1 and 1.5, Mg/K≥3, (Ca+Mg)/K of between 12 and 40 and Ca/SBE x100 ≥ 68%. These ratios reflect not only good cocoa-growing soil, but also a good balance between Ca and the sum of exchangeable bases (SBE) and between K and the sum of Ca and Mg. On the other hand, all treatments had potassium deficiencies with (K/S) x100 < 8%. As for yield, treatments T1 (100%RP + 100% NPK 0-23-19) with 2953.44 Kgha-1, T2 (90%RP + 100% NPK 0-23-19) with 2962.95 Kgha-1 and T3 (80% RP + 100% NPK 0-23-19) with 2862.10 Kgha-1 were the most expressive.

Contribution of Sustainable Cocoa Production to Poverty Reduction in Nigeria

The study examined the contribution of sustainable cocoa certification programme to poverty reduction in Nigeria. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select 360 cocoa farmers (certified and non-certified farmers) from 3 major cocoa-producing states in the country. The Alkire-Foster method of multidimensional poverty index was used along with descriptive statistics to analyze the data collected. The study revealed that the annual average cocoa income of certified farmers and non-certified farmers is ₦954,791.7 and ₦663,742.4 respectively. More than half (63%) of the cocoa farmers are multidimensionally poor and the majority (80%) of them are non-certified cocoa farmers. Therefore, policymakers should develop programme that address multidimensional poverty among cocoa farmers, such as providing access to electricity, drinking water, health care, and sanitation. In addition, more awareness should be created on cocoa certification programme to encourage more participation among cocoa farmers.

Sustainable Pathways: Exploring Farmers' Perceptions of Cocoa Certification Programme in South-West, Nigeria

The significance of sustainable cocoa production has been widely studied using various methods and models, however, the farmers’ viewpoints on cocoa certification programme remained largely unexplored. This study attempts to examine the perceptions of farmers on certification programme towards sustainable cocoa production in the South-West, of Nigeria. Multistage sampling procedures were used to collect primary data through the aid of a well-structured questionnaire from three hundred and sixty (360) cocoa farmers (certified and non-certified) in Ondo, Osun and Ogun States. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean and percentage as well as Independent T-test were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that the majority (68.9%) of the respondents were male, and also married which implies that they have access to family labour. The main reason why non-certified cocoa farmers did not participate in the programme is due to inadequate awareness, while the major bodies creating awareness on cocoa certification are the exporters and the License buying agents. The study further revealed that the promotion of good agricultural practices, provision of premium on cocoa beans sold, and access to market linkages were perceived and ranked highest among the certified farmers. The major constraints identified with the programme are pest and disease, delay in premium payment, climate change, and inadequate storage facilities. The results of the T-test revealed that there were significant differences between both the income and the output of certified cocoa farmers and that of non-certified cocoa farmers. The study therefore recommended that more awareness of cocoa certification programmes should be created not only by the cocoa Exporters and Licensed buying agents, but also by Government agencies and institutions, and policymakers should also work to ensure that certified farmers receive fair and competitive premium prices for their cocoa beans.

Sustainable Development Frontiers: Is ‘Sustainable’ Cocoa Delivering Development and Reducing Deforestation?

ABSTRACTForest frontiers are important areas for sustainable development as they combine the need to halt deforestation with the challenges of rural poverty. In the region of San Martín, Peru, the ‘Production, Protection and Inclusion’ model combines narratives of conservation, economic development and social inclusion in what can be defined as a ‘sustainable development frontier’. This article asks how such sustainable development frontiers change social, economic and ecological outcomes in the localities where they are found. The authors examine the reality of sustainable cocoa production linked to conservation and development goals, as promoted by government bodies, international agencies, cooperatives and chocolate brands in Peru, and show how, paradoxically, sustainability goals intensify production and attract smallholders into forest frontier areas. In doing so, the boom in demand for sustainable commodities has inadvertently created conditions encouraging further colonization of forested areas leading to a continuing rise in deforestation, ecological degradation and economic instability. Narratives of sustainable development can thus reinforce commodity intensification, as they obscure alternative approaches and reproduce traditional frontier dynamics.

Land suitability analysis for cocoa (Theobroma cacao) production in the Sunyani municipality, Bono region, Ghana

To ensure sustainable food production systems it is crucial to adopt resilient agricultural practices that boost productivity and income. Therefore, this study integrated geospatial methodologies with GIS-based AHP algorithms to identify potential cocoa production areas in the Sunyani Municipality. Despite the fact that some review studies addressed land suitability, very few of them particularly examined land suitability analyses for cocoa production. Additionally, past studies did not take into account the hotspot areas for higher yield prediction on current and future land suitability. Weighted Linear Combination models (WLC) were used to evaluate and map land suitability for cocoa production in Sunyani Municipality, Ghana, and the Saaty's matrix cross-comparison method was utilized to determine the consistency ratio across criteria. The parameters used in the study to identify and analyze suitable areas for growing cocoa were slope, soil depth, land surface drainage, soil texture, LULC, rainfall, and temperature.The WLC and GIS-MCDA findings indicate that 7918.38 ha (23.3%) was highly suitable for cocoa production, 21,456.65 ha (63.3%) moderately suitable, 2676.33 ha (7.9%) marginally suitable and 1859.1 ha (5.5%) was not suitable for cocoa production. The findings indicate that the main constraints limiting high cocoa production and yield were poor land use management brought on by rapid population increase and forest degradation as well as rainfall variability. Higher cocoa yields can be achieved when farmers adjust their agronomic management to the requirements of the newly identified cocoa-growing areas. The hot spot analysis revealed that farms in Fahiakotwere, Mensakurom, Yawsaekurom, Peprakurom, Opaniapakurom and Abesim community have higher cocoa yields on the present and future land suitability.The results could be used as the baseline information for mapping land constraints for sustainable cocoa production and to strengthen capacity for agriculture adaptation and agricultural development. The study's findings have significance for attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations by using resilient agriculture techniques that boost agricultural productivity and income. Production of cocoa is more challenging in areas that are moderately and marginally appropriate due to varying rainfall patterns and harsh climatic conditions like high temperatures and drought. However, it is recommended that farmers produce cocoa in areas designated as suitable in the Municipality to guarantee productive land use.

Hand pollination under shade trees triples cocoa yield in Brazil’s agroforests

Agricultural diversification can enhance climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and livelihood in global farming systems. Diverse agroforestry systems with cocoa have been shown to provide all these benefits, but the often-lower yields compared to monocultures limit agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers. Cocoa yield is pollination-limited, and here, we quantified the effect of hand pollination in cocoa on fruit set, fruit abortion or cherelle wilt, pest and diseases, and number of mature fruits. Experiments were conducted in Bahia, Brazil, along a shade gradient from low [10–30%] to high [70–100%] canopy cover and with cocoa trees grafted with high-yielding varieties. We found on average 331% fruit set, and 300% mature fruit increase (i.e. ripe pods) per tree by enhancing pollination by hand as little as 10% of the flowers/tree, compared to the control (i.e. with only natural pollination). Fruit set, fruit losses, and mature fruit development linked to hand pollination was higher in low compared to highly shaded cocoa areas. We found 31% higher fruit set and 37% higher number of mature fruits in grafted than un-grafted trees. Further, when comparing efforts invested in hand pollination, minimum labor (∼5 min/tree to pollinate 10–30% of the flowers/tree) led to a 871% fruit set and a 750% mature fruit increase under low canopy cover, and intermediate labor (∼15 min/tree to pollinate 40–60% flowers/tree) to a 629% fruit set under high canopy cover. As ∼5–15 min/tree hand pollination can substantially enhance fruit set and number of mature fruits in low as well as high shade management, we recommend performing hand pollination particularly in agroforests under 40–50% canopy cover to create win-win opportunities for high productivity and climate resilience. Future research should focus on the wide range of agroforestry, tree grafting and innovation strategies in all major production regions to capture the long-term variability of hand pollination as a basis to scale-up hand pollination for sustainable cocoa production globally.

Knowledge, perception, and pesticide application practices among smallholder cocoa farmers in four Ghanaian cocoa-growing regions.

Pesticides are widely used in Ghana, especially in cocoa farming. However, the practice is suboptimal and unsupervised. Incorrect use of these chemicals can seriously harm human health, the environment, and economies that rely on these farmers' output. The study assessed cocoa farmers' pesticide knowledge, practices, and risk perception. Four hundred and four cocoa farmers were chosen randomly from 26 communities in four cocoa-growing regions of Ghana to answer questions about their risk knowledge, awareness, and practices, including personal protective equipment, storage and disposal of leftover pesticides, and used containers. The study revealed that 87% of the respondents belonged to cooperatives and certification groups. There was a significant positive relationship between group membership and benefits derived from inputs and training in pesticide use. About 70% of insecticides used were approved by the Ghana Cocoa Board, with neonicotinoids and pyrethroids being the most highly used insecticide classes in cocoa farms. Although farmers claimed adequate pesticide knowledge, this did not translate into practice, with the majority exhibiting improper pesticide storage, application, and disposal practices. Farmers appeared to know a lot but lacked the skills and attitude to put their knowledge to use. The improper practices appear to manifest in a variety of health symptoms experienced by farmers as a result of chemical exposure. The findings from this study suggest that cocoa farmers in Ghana require adequate practical training and support on pesticide use to reduce their associated health risks, protect the environment and ensure sustainable cocoa production in the world's second-largest cocoa bean exporter.

Toward Sustainable Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao L) Production: The Role of Potassium Fertilizer in Cocoa Seedlings Drought Recovery and Survival

ABSTRACT Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L) is an understorey plant that is highly sensitive to drought, especially at the seedling stage. In Ghana, only 20% cocoa seedlings survive the dry spells within 24 months after transplanting. Potassium (K) is known to enhance the growth of plants root to increase water uptake under drought conditions. This study assessed the effect of different levels of K fertilizer in enhancing the drought recovery and survival of four cocoa genotypes grown in Ghana. A 3 × 3 factorial experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design was carried out at the FRNR farm, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana in 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 cropping seasons. The treatments consisted of 0 g, 4 g and 6 g plant−1 of muriate of potash (60% K2O) and three cocoa varieties: Amaz15-15XEqx78 (V1); CRG8914XPA150 (V2) and PA7/808XPound10 (V3). The result showed that cocoa varieties applied with 4 g or 6 gK plant−1 produced higher (p < .05) belowground and aboveground biomass than the control. The K treated seedlings had about 77% survival rate than the control (43%) seedlings. Among the varieties, V2 had better drought recovery and survival rate (81%), followed by V3 (78%) and V1 (71%). In addition to the morphological characteristics, K enhanced the nitrogen content in cocoa seedlings during drought recovery and this correlated positively (R = 0.863) with survival rate. In conclusion, when farmers grow V2 and apply 4 gK plant−1 during drought, over 80% of the seedling will recovery and survive. This has implications for K fertility management, yield and the livelihood of smallholder (70%) cocoa farmers.