Suspension Feed Research Articles

Stranger things: on the novel buccopharyngeal anatomy and functional morphology of ‘sand-eating’ Malagasy tadpoles (Anura: Mantellidae: Mantidactylus)

Abstract Anuran larvae are characterized by an extensive array of specialized oral structures that allow them to both graze on substrates and suspension feed with great efficiency. Diversity in these feeding structures accounts for significant diversity of anurans. Herein we describe an astonishing novel buccopharyngeal morphology in six larvae of ‘sand-eating’ tadpoles of the Mantellidae genus Mantidactylus. The buccopharyngeal cavity of these tadpoles is characterized by the presence of ruffled ridges not seen previously in any other anuran larva. Extensive review of the literature and of new empirical data demonstrates the uniqueness of this morphology. We present both CT scans and ergonomic arguments in support of the hypothesis that the ruffled ridges are employed as scrubbing pads, allowing these tadpoles to remove food particles from sand grains. In addition, we explore how the ridges may have developed and evolved.

Growth and Development of Stadia Artemia salina in Culture with Different Concentration of Bran Suspension

The annual need for Artemia in Indonesia reaches 40-60 tons, but up to now 100% of this need is still imported. Various efforts have been made to produce Artemia cysts, but the main obstacle in cultivating Artemia to produce cysts is the availability of natural food, namely phytoplankton which can survive in high salinity. The use of organic materials such as bran can be a solution for feeding and can increase the density of Artemia, but excessive use of bran suspension in Artemia cultivation ponds can trigger a decrease in the quality of the water for the growth of Artemia. This research was conducted to determine the optimal concentration of bran feed for the growth and development of Artemia salina without compromising the water quality of the cultivation. The Artemia feed used in this study was a bran suspension enriched with lemuru fish oil (12 ml/L bran suspension). The bran feed concentration treatments in this study were 5 treatments sequentially, namely P1 to P5 with feed concentrations of 11, 18, 26.34, and 41 mg/L. Artemia salina cultivation in this study was carried out at an initial density of 50 ind/L with a salinity of 30 pptl. The research results showed that cultivating Artemia salina using bran suspension feed with different concentrations had an effect on the growth and development of Artemia salina. The best growth and development of Artemia results from cultivation using bran suspension feed with a concentration of 41 mg/L.

Concentrations Fermentation of Rice Bran Addition of Lemuru Fish Oil Toward Fecundity and Production Offspring Moina macrocopa

Moina macrocopa is a natural food that has the potential for freshwater fish seeds, because of its high nutritional value, easy to digest and has a fast, fast breeding, and has a size that is in accordance with the fish's mouth opening. Problems in the use of M. macrocopa as natural food are constrained by the availability of M. macrocopa both from nature and from cultivation. Population density in M. macrocopa cultivation varies due to different quality of food used. The needs of M. macrocopa as natural food can be met if the quality and quantity of feed used optimally support population growth. This study aims to determine the effect of lemuru fish oil concentration in bran suspension fermentation on fecundity and offspring production of M. macrocopa. This study used a completely randomized design (CRD) consisting of five treatments three replications, namely: control treatment (0 mg/L lemuru fish oil, 100 gram bran), P1 (4 mg/L lemuru fish oil, 100 gram bran), P2 (lemuru fish oil 5 mg/L, 100 gram bran ), P3 (lemuru fish oil 6 mg/L, 100 gram bran), P4 (7 mg/L lemuru fish oil, 100 grams), and P5 (8 mg/L lemuru fish oil, 100 gram bran ).The parameters observed were fecundity and child production per parent and water quality. Data analysis used the Analysis of Variance test followed by Duncan's multiple test. The results showed that the cultivation of M. macrocopa using different bran suspension feed with supplemented lemuru fish oil affected the fecundity and production of children per M. macrocopa parent. The concentration of lemuru fish oil of 6 mg/L in the feed resulted in a fecundity of 24,00±2,00 eggs/parent and child production is 20,33±1,52 ind/parent.

Tailoring the porosity level of the suspension plasma sprayed coatings using a dual suspension injection system

This study investigated the feasibility of tailoring the porosity in suspension plasma sprayed (SPS) coatings using a dual suspension injection system. Two titanium dioxide water-based suspensions with different particle sizes were injected into the plasma jet through two injectors located at different radial distances from the exit of the plasma torch. By varying the spray parameters, the fraction of unmelted particles in the coatings coming from the injector located farther from the torch changed. The total porosity was evaluated to range from approximately 16 % to 36 %, and the variation was related principally to the gaps between the unmelted particles. Among the selected spray parameters, the suspension feed rate and distance between the injectors were found to have the most significant effect on increasing the porosity. The samples were analyzed using SEM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy.

A two-step strategy for production of spherical non-aggregated multi-component particles by suspension-fed spray flame

For applications in optics, energy storage, and semiconductors etc., spherical non-aggregated particles are desired for better flowability, molding capability and homogeneous densification. Spray flame synthesis has attracted widespread attention with its excellent ability for atomic-level mixing/doping and good potential for scale-up production. However, spray flame synthesis usually produces aggregates due to the known collision-coalescence growth. In this paper, we propose a two-step strategy of suspension-fed spray-flame synthesis. The first step involves the synthesis of aggregated nanoparticles, followed by a second step where these aggregates are reconstructed into spherical non-aggregated particles while retaining the advantage of atomic-level homogeneous mixing. It is found that for aggregated Y2O3 nanoparticles, the critical point for reconstructing into spherical particles occurs when the flame temperature exceeds the melting point. The spherical particle size increases with the solid concentration of the suspension by a power of about 0.28. Assuming that droplets do not undergo micro-explosions and instead follow a one droplet to one particle route results in an overestimation of particle size by a factor of 6 to 8. This discrepancy suggests that micro-explosions may play certain role in the new suspension-fed flame synthesis, and largely reduces the final particle size. Furthermore, the Al2O3-Y2O3 and MgO-Y2O3 particles are selected for the multicomponent suspension-fed synthesis, representing the miscible and immiscible systems, respectively. The results show that for the Al2O3-Y2O3 system, uniformly mixed spherical non-aggregated particles are obtained. For the MgO-Y2O3 system, both composite spherical particles with pinning structure and MgO nanoparticles are identified, indicating that for obtaining spherical multi-component non-aggregated particles, the flame temperature needs to be higher than not only the eutectic component's melting point but also any single component's melting point. Overall, suspension-fed spray flame synthesis opens up a new pathway for the low-cost industrial-scale production of spherical non-aggregated multi-component particles.

Structural and functional diversity patterns of macrofaunal communities from a semi-enclosed inlet of Northeast Atlantic: The influence of environmental conditions

Comprehending the mechanisms and circumstances responsible for the dynamics of biological communities is a fundamental step for predicting responses to environmental changes as well as efficient conservation and management efforts. Macrofaunal assemblages support a wide range of ecosystem services, serving as integral components of the biogeochemical cycle. Here, we examine the structure of the subtidal macrofaunal community in a semi-enclosed bay system located in the Northeast Atlantic. Employing a functional approach, our aim is to understand the interplay between water depth, geographical position, colonisation development and the communities. Our findings did not reveal the influence of water depth (range of 4 m–12 m) on the functional structures of the communities. Instead, only significant differences were demonstrated for ‘time of colonisation’ and ‘site’. The community with 1 month of colonisation presented limited functional diversity lacking overall ecological resilience. It was mainly characterised by ‘small-sized’, ‘short-lived’, ‘mobile’, and ‘deposit-feed’ organisms indicating an incipient state of development. Communities Site 2 and Site 3 revealed significant differences in the functional structure of the communities. They exhibited similar levels of functional diversity, yet significant differences emerged in the Biological Trait Analysis. Community Site 2 was characterised by ‘sessile’, ‘long-lived’, ‘large-sized’ ‘suspension feed’ while community Site 3 was characterised by ‘herbivore/grazer’, ‘tubicolous’, and ‘medium-lived’ organisms. Site 2 focuses on the transport of elements from pelagos to the benthos and from benthos to pelagos while Site 3 focus on the transport of elements within the benthos and from benthos to pelagos, and effectively contributes to decomposition and resuspension processes. Moreover, they differ in their sensitivity to disturbance, which suggests that their location in the Ría influences the functional composition of the communities. Understanding these patterns within this environment of significant ecological and economic importance holds profound implications for the effective preservation of ecosystem services.

Different omega-3 concentrations in bran suspension toward the first reproduction time of Artemia sp.

The need for Artemia sp. in Indonesia is very high and still relies on imported products. One of the drawbacks of bran suspension is the absence of Omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 is proven to accelerate the maturity and reproduction of Artemia sp. The addition of bran suspension with Omega-3 may increase the population of Artemia sp. in culture rapidly. This study aimed was to determine the effect of different concentrations of Omega-3 in rice bran suspension on time of the first reproduction Artemia sp. and to determine the effect of different concentrations of Omega-3 in rice bran suspension on Artemia sp. nauplii production. This study used a Completely Randomized Design which was divided into five treatments and four replications. The concentration of Omega-3 was P1 (3 mL), P2 (4 mL), P3 (5 mL), P4 (6 mL) and using rice bran suspension feed control (P0) 100 gr/mL. Artemia sp. culture was carried out at a density of 100 ind/L. The results showed that the culture of Artemia sp. using bran suspension feed with different concentrations of Omega-3 can affect the first reproduction time of Artemia sp. The fastest first reproduction time of Artemia sp. was produced from cultured using rice bran suspension feed with a concentration of Omega-3 (4 mL) which was 394 hours.

Quantity and quality of ephippia from moina (Moina macrocopa) culture with bran suspension feed with Lemuru fish oil

Epipia Moina macrocopa is a product of sexual reproduction in the form of dormant egg cells that can be stored for a long time. The epipia can hatch at any time similar to the Artemia cyst. The quality and quantity of ephippia is influenced by the quality and quantity of the feed. The study used a completely randomized design (CRD) consisting of five treatments and four replications. The treatments consisted of a control without the addition of fish oil (P0). suspension of bran with the addition of 1.5 ml of fish oil (P1). suspension of bran with the addition of 3 ml of fish oil (P2). suspension of bran with the addition of 4.5 ml of fish oil (P3). and suspension of bran with the addition of 6 ml fish oil (P4). The main parameters are the quality and quantity of epihipia. The concentration of lemuru fish oil 6 ml/100 gr of bran can increase the quantity of ephippia as much as 426 ± 60.53 grains/L with the percentage of ephippia containing eggs as much as 98%.3 grains/L with the percentage of ephippia containing eggs as much as 98%.

DNA metabarcoding reveals the dietary profiles of a benthic marine crustacean, Nephrops norvegicus.

Norwegian lobster, Nephrops norvegicus, are a generalist scavenger and predator capable of short foraging excursions but can also suspension feed. Existing knowledge about their diet relies on a combination of methods including morphology-based stomach content analysis and stable isotopes, which often lack the resolution to distinguish prey items to species level particularly in species that thoroughly masticate their prey. DNA metabarcoding overcomes many of the challenges associated with traditional methods and it is an attractive approach to study the dietary profiles of animals. Here, we present the diet of the commercially valuable Nephrops norvegicus using DNA metabarcoding of gut contents. Despite difficulties associated with host amplification, our cytochrome oxidase I (COI) molecular assay successfully achieves higher resolution information than traditional approaches. We detected taxa that were likely consumed during different feeding strategies. Dinoflagellata, Chlorophyta and Bacillariophyta accounted for almost 50% of the prey items consumed, and are associated with suspension feeding, while fish with high fisheries discard rates were detected which are linked to active foraging. In addition, we were able to characterise biodiversity patterns by considering Nephrops as natural samplers, as well as detecting parasitic dinoflagellates (e.g., Hematodinium sp.), which are known to influence burrow related behaviour in infected individuals in over 50% of the samples. The metabarcoding data presented here greatly enhances a better understanding of a species' ecological role and could be applied as a routine procedure in future studies for proper consideration in the management and decision-making of fisheries.

Production of nano-scale cellulose nanocrystal powder via electrospray drying (ESD) for sustainable composites

This research introduces the use of electrospray drying (ESD) using the electro-hydro dynamic atomization (EHDA) mechanism to produce dry nano-scale cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) powder from a 3 wt% aqueous suspension. The nano-scale CNC suspensions being mostly water are energy intensive to dry. Gas atomization in convection spray drying (SD) produces micron-scale CNC powder during dehydration. The ESD mechanism utilizes coulomb repulsion to overcome the suspension’s liquid surface tension and produces ultra-fine droplets. The droplets dehydrate after falling a fixed distance at atmospheric temperature and pressure, leaving nano-scale powder CNCs. Drying CNCs in suspension occurred after reducing the liquid’s surface tension by mixing 40% (wt) ethanol and 60 (wt) de-ionized (DI) water. The suspension feed rate was optimized at 6 µL min−1 and four syringes were employed to increase CNC powder production rates. Particle dimensions, observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and measured by image analysis software, ranged from 40 to 1200 nm in length and 10–500 nm in width. Up to 80% of the sprayed CNCs in suspension were recovered from a parallel plate collector and contained ~ 5 wt% water content. Adding 0.5 wt% nano-scale powder CNCs in the poly-lactic acid (PLA) tensile strength by 10.3% and elastic modulus by 9.9%. The tensile yield strength and elastic modulus of nano-scale CNC/PLA composite specimens were 62.5 MPa and 3.66 GPa, respectively. For comparison, 0.5 wt% SD micron scale CNC/PLA composite only increased strength 5.1 and stiffness 1.3% at the same processing conditions.Graphical abstract

Evaluation of major factors influencing the TBC topcoat formation in axial suspension plasma spraying (SPS)

AbstractSuspension plasma spraying (SPS) is ideally suited to produce porous or dense columnar, strain‐tolerant thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) and also offers the possibility of producing other microstructures such as feathery and dense vertically cracked coatings. The specific properties of the TBC are significantly influenced by the formed microstructure, that is, affected by feedstock material and process parameters. In this work, the effects of various process parameters in the SPS process are investigated. It was found that the suspension feed rate has a significant effect on the microstructure, especially on the column density of the coating, whereas the suspension solids content mainly affects the coating porosity. Additionally, the surface roughness and topography of the bond coat are crucial for the formation of columnar coatings and were therefore investigated. Despite comparable roughness values for as‐sprayed bond coats for high velocity oxy fuel and vacuum plasma spray produced coatings, the surface structures differ significantly from each other and affect the microstructure of the deposited topcoat. Characterization of mechanical properties by means of micro‐indenter can be suitable for columnar coatings to determine Young's modulus within a column. However, due to the heterogeneity of the coating, the method is not suitable to describe the mechanical properties of the topcoat.

TiO2 Photocatalytic Ultrafiltration Membrane Developed with Suspension Plasma Spray Process

The suspension plasma spray process was used to fabricate photocatalytic ultrafiltration membranes for potential water and wastewater treatment applications. An aqueous suspension of 30 wt.% titanium dioxide with an average individual particle size of around 30 nm was used as feedstock material. The spray parameters, such as suspension solid content, suspension feed rate, and spray distance, were optimized using an Ar/H2 plasma to retain a fraction of unmelted feedstock nanoparticles as the source of fine pores in the membrane microstructure. The microstructure, porosity, phase composition, and pure water permeability of the membranes were characterized comprehensively. The average pore size of the membrane was around 40 nm, which was very close to the particle size of the pristine titanium dioxide powder. The membranes demonstrated a high water permeability between 2000 and 7200 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, which was inversely proportional to the thickness. They also exhibited significant photocatalytic activity under visible light.

High-effective magnetic hydrocycloning equipment for magnetite ore processing

A new method and equipment for magnetic hydrocycloning are proposed, which make it possible to extract the magnetic fraction from a polydisperse suspension with a high specific productivity and separation efficiency without preliminary classification by size. An alternating magnetic field source is coaxially superimposed on top of the hydrocyclone so that the magnet-like lines intersect the suspension flow rotating in the cylindrical part of the hydrocyclone. In this case, the gradient of the magnetic field inside the body of the hydrocyclone is directed opposite to the direction of the summed vectors of the centrifugal force and gravitational force, and the magnetic fraction (product) is redirected through a drain tube for the concentrate outlet. It is possible to adjust the operating mode of the magnetic hydrocyclone for adjusting the total area of the outlet holes in the drain tube by moving an insert with slot-like cuts, which changes the overlap area of the holes. The magnetic hydrocyclone is recommended for processing ferruginous quartzite and other types of ores with pronounced magnetic properties. The results of the effective separation of magnetic and nonmagnetic particles at different magnetic field densities are presented, and the dependence of the magnetic fraction recovery on the size of the initial suspension feed is described. A method is proposed for estimating the possibility of extracting magnetic particles at preset parameters, for example, the geometric dimensions of the magnetic hydrocyclones at the varied values of the magnetic field density and particle flow velocity. The formula for the calculation is given, which establishes the equality, when the particle overcomes the internal space of the hydrocyclone and is extracted into the concentrate.

Understanding the influence of microstructure on hot corrosion and erosion behavior of suspension plasma sprayed thermal barrier coatings

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are bilayer systems comprising a 7–8 wt% yttria partially stabilized zirconia (YSZ) top coat deposited over a metallic bond coat. Suspension plasma spraying (SPS) is an advanced and attractive top coat processing technique due to its capability to yield a variety of microstructures, including the desired columnar microstructure for enhanced strain tolerance and durability. This work attempts to investigate the desirable microstructural features in an SPS processed TBCs to mitigate hot corrosion and minimize erosion related losses that are often responsible for coating degradation. SPS processed TBCs were deposited utilizing three different spray conditions to obtain distinct microstructural features (column density, interpass [IP] porosity bands, column width), porosity content, and mechanical properties. Apart from comprehensive characterization utilizing SEM, XRD and micro-indentation tests, the as-deposited TBCs were subjected to hot-corrosion tests in the presence of vanadium pentoxide and sodium sulfate as corrosive salts. Post-corrosion analysis revealed complete infiltration of the molten salts in all the investigated TBCs. However, the delamination cracks generated due to the infiltrated corrosive species were minimal in case of TBCs with higher fracture toughness. The differences in microstructure and mechanical properties also led to differences in erosion performance, with TBCs possessing minimal total porosity content and high fracture toughness best resisting erosion related damage. Post-erosion analysis revealed that the TBCs with higher fracture toughness and micro-hardness showed superior erosion resistance. Based on the erosion and corrosion results and subsequent post-mortem of failed specimens, plausible damage mechanisms are proposed. Findings from this work provide new insights on developing damage tolerant TBCs microstructures with enhanced durability when exposed to erosion and hot corrosion environments. • SPS TBCs with varying columnar microstructural features and mechanical properties were deposited. • Influence of parameters (suspension feed rate, spray distance, etc.) on microstructural features in SPS TBCs examined. • Desirable microstructural features were identified to minimize erosion and hot corrosion.

Preparation and Properties of RDX/Aluminum Composites by Spray-Drying Method

RDX/aluminum composites were prepared by the spray-drying method with F2602 as a binder. The morphology and covering effect of composites were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The effect of the processing parameters on the morphology of the samples was investigated. The impact sensitivity and thermal decomposition behavior of RDX/aluminum composites were also measured and analyzed. Optimal morphology of samples was achieved when the inlet temperature, nitrogen flow rate, and suspension feed flow rates were 80°C, 473 L·h-1, and 4.5 mL·min-1, respectively. In addition, RDX/aluminum composites with the same content were prepared by a coverage-mixing method for comparative analysis. Experimental results showed that the thermal sensitivity and the impact sensitivity of RDX/aluminum composites prepared by the spray-drying method were significantly lower than those of RDX/aluminum composites prepared by the coverage-mixing method.

Studying the regularities of oxidative catalytic cracking of vacuum distillates

Improving the efficiency of processing heavy oil residues into light petroleum products and raw materials is an urgent task for Kazakhstan and other countries that produce and consume petroleum products. Really the share of heavy oil and natural bitumen in the balance of hydrocarbon raw materials produced will continuously increase. The aim of the study was preparation of catalysts based on Taizhuzgen zeolite and Narynkol clay (Kazakhstan) and determination their efficiency in the process of oxidative cracking of vacuum distillates of Atyrau and Zhetybai oil. The IR spectra of the obtained gasolines indicate that the reactions of incomplete oxidation of hydrocarbons in the course of oxidative cracking practically do not occur. At low volume feed rates of the initial substance to the reactor, the yield of diene and cyclodiene hydrocarbons in the presence of air additives significantly increases in comparison with cracking carried out without air additives to the reactor. The direction of the oxidative cracking process changes with an increase in the volume rate of the suspension feed. Obviously that the air of definite concentrations in the reactor contribute to a deeper destruction of the hydrocarbons of the vacuum gas oils investigated.

Concentration of fermented tilapia feces suspension by decomposer bacteria as a feed to induce moina macrocopa sexual reproduction

Sexual induction of M. macrocopa can be induced by setting a density of feed concentration. To optimize the production of ephippia, sexual females must be given sufficient quality feed. Fermentation of tilapia fish from the results of preliminary studies showed a significant increase in protein concentration but fat concentration decreased. This research to determine the best concentration of fermented tilapia feces feed to produce ephippia M. macrocopa. This research is experimental by using a completely randomized design (CRD). This research consisted of 4 treatments of feed concentration is fermented feces suspension concentration of 33,30 mg/L (P1), 37,00 mg/L (P2) and 40,70 mg/L (P3) and control using rice bran suspension feed concentration of 37,00 mg/L(P0), with each using 5 replications. Induction sexual offspring is maintained at a density of 1000 ind/L for 6 days. During cultivation is calculated survival rate, M. macrocopa ephippia production, and some water quality parameters as support. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and Duncan test. This research showed that M. macrocopa cultivation using several concentrations of suspension feed of fermented tilapia feces at concentrations of 40.70 mg/L can induce sexual females and produce ephippia and showed the highest survival rate (1186 ± 26,45 grains/L) and 88,13%.

Maximizing production of a male offspring in Moina macrocopa culture through manipulation of rice bran suspension concentration

The quality and quantity of Moina ephippia is influenced by the male and female sexual ratios in the population. The availability of males in the population can increase the number of fertilized eggs and ephippia hatching rates. This study aims to examine the concentration of rice bran suspension in culture to produce the most male offspring, and the quality and quantity of ephippia produced. Moina was cultured for twelve days and from the fifth day the feed is given with different concentrations. The results of this study indicate that, Moina culture using bran suspension feed with a concentration of 0.36-0.48 ml/L starting on the fifth day resulted in the production of low calf offspring but produced the highest total production of male offspring of 818±35 ind/L. Increased production of male offspring increases the production of ephippia containing two eggs but does not increase the degree of hatching significantly.

QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF EPHIPIA MOINA MACROCOPA RESULTING FROM MATING USING TILAPIA FISH FECES SUSPENSION FEED

The needs of Artemia cysts in Indonesia currently reach ± ​​150 tons / year and all of them are from the imports, so it can become an obstacle in process of hatching fish and shrimp in the future. Increased Culture activities have an impact on increasing fisheries waste production, including fish feces. Fish feces have been proven to be used for the Culture of Moina macrocopa, but have not been tested for the production for ephipia M. macrocopa. This study aims to examine the use of fish aquaculture/feces as feed for the quality and quality of ephipia M. macrocopa. The treatment in this study was the concentration of suspension of tilapia feces 55 mg / L, 64 mg / L, and 73 mg / L and using rice bran suspension feed control 64 mg / L. The results of this study indicate that, the concentration of suspension of tilapia feces does not affect the production and hatching rate of ephipia M. macrocopa. M. macrocopa which was cultured with suspension of tilapia feces produced epiphia production and with a lower hatching rate compared to M. macrocopa with rice bran suspension feed.

Maximum density in the Moina macrocopa culture able to produce parthenogenesis in female offspring

Population density in the culture of Moina macrocopa affects the production of offspring per parent. Female parthenogenesis is able to produce a high population density. Information on the M. macrocopa culture densities for inoculant provision is not yet available. This study aims to examine the density of the culture of M. macrocopa against the production of offspring per parent and the percentage of female parthenogenesis offspring production. The treatments in this study were differentiated parent densities ranging from 20 ind/ L to 330 ind/L and each with three replications. During the culture, M. macrocopa was fed with a rice bran suspension. The results of this study indicated that M. macrocopa was cultured using rice bran suspension feed in the parent density of 66 ind/L, which produced offspring per parent (8.56 to 13.01) equal to the parent density of 20 ind/L, whereas all of the females were parthenogenesis females. M. macrocopa was cultured with a mother density of 330 ind/L, which produced the highest female sexual ephippia and male offspring in the first until the third birthing round.