Surfeit Locus Research Articles

Integrated cellular response of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) heart to temperature change.

A decrease in environmental temperature represents a challenge to the cardiovascular system of ectotherms. To gain insight into the cellular changes that occur during cold exposure and cold acclimation we characterized the cardiac phosphoproteome and proteome of zebrafish following 24 h or one week exposure to 20 oC from 27 oC; or at multiple points during six weeks of acclimation to 20 oC from 27 oC. Our results indicate that cold exposure causes an increase in mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, the activation of stretch sensitive pathways, cellular remodeling via ubiquitin-dependent pathways, and changes to the phosphorylation state of proteins that regulate myofilament structure and function including desmin and troponin T. Cold acclimation (2-6 weeks) led to a decrease in multiple components of the electron transport chain through time, but an increase in proteins for lipid transport, lipid metabolism, the incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids into membranes and protein turnover. For example, there was an increase in the levels of apolipoprotein C, prostaglandin reductase-3, and surfeit locus protein 4, involved in lipid transport, lipid metabolism, and lipid membrane remodeling. Gill opercular movements suggests that oxygen utilization during cold acclimation is reduced. Neither the amount of food consumed relative to body mass nor body condition were affected by acclimation. These results suggest that while oxygen uptake was reduced, energy homeostasis was maintained. This study highlights that the response of zebrafish to a decrease in temperature is dynamic through time and that investment in the proteomic response increases with the duration of exposure.

Surfeit locus protein 4 modulates endoplasmic reticulum function and maintains oocyte quality

ABSTRACT Surfeit locus protein 4 is a cargo receptor mediating cargo transport from the endoplasmic reticulum lumen to the Golgi apparatus. Loss of Surf4 gene led to embryonic lethality in mice. However, the role of Surf4 during oocyte development remains unknown. In this study, we generated the mouse model with oocyte-specific knockout of Surf4 gene. We found that adult mice with deletion of Surf4 showed normal folliculogenesis, ovulation and fertility. However, loss of Surf4 slightly impaired oocyte quality, thus led to partial oocyte meiotic arrest and reduced ratio of blastocyst formation. Consistent with this, the distribution of endoplasmic reticulum was disturbed in Surf4-deficient oocytes in mice. These results demonstrated that although Surf4 is dispensable for female mouse fertility, Surf4 modulates endoplasmic reticulum arrangement and participates in regulation of developmental competence of oocytes.

Cloning of sft-4 and its influence on vitality and virulence of pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

In our previous screening of the transcriptome of the causal agent of the devastating pine wilt disease, pine wood nematode (PWN, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus), after treatment with the nematicide fomepizole, Surfeit locus gene sft-4, which encodes a regulatory factor, was found to be downregulated. In situ hybridization results showed that the sft-4 was continuously expressed from egg to adult and was especially high in the reproductive system. Here in a study of the effect of RNA interference (RNAi) of sft-4 and recombinant SFT-4 on PWN activity, treatment with sft-4 dsRNA inhibited feeding, reproduction, oviposition and egg hatching of PWN with the greatest inhibition on reproduction and oviposition, whereas recombinant SFT-4 had the opposite effect. In addition, RNAi of sft-4 changed the female–male ratio and lifespan of PWN. In bioassays of PWNs, with RNAi of sft-4 on seedlings and 2-year-old Pinus thunbergii trees, none of the treated plants developed symptoms during the monitoring period, indicating that virulence of PWNs was either significantly weakened. These results indicate that the influence of sft-4 on PWN pathogenicity may be mainly through regulating reproductive function of PWN and its lifespan.

Intestinal SURF4 is essential for apolipoprotein transport and lipoprotein secretion

ObjectiveLipoprotein assembly and secretion in the small intestine are critical for dietary fat absorption. Surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF4) serves as a cargo receptor, facilitating the cellular transport of multiple proteins and mediating hepatic lipid secretion in vivo. However, its involvement in intestinal lipid secretion is not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the role of SURF4 in intestinal lipid absorption. MethodsWe generated intestine-specific Surf4 knockout mice and characterized the phenotypes. Additionally, we investigated the underlying mechanisms of SURF4 in intestinal lipid secretion using proteomics and cellular models. ResultsWe unveiled that SURF4 is indispensable for apolipoprotein transport and lipoprotein secretion. Intestine-specific Surf4 knockout mice exhibited ectopic lipid deposition in the small intestine and hypolipidemia. Deletion of SURF4 impeded the transport of apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1), proline-rich acidic protein 1 (PRAP1), and apolipoprotein B48 (ApoB48) and hindered the assembly and secretion of chylomicrons and high-density lipoproteins. ConclusionsSURF4 emerges as a pivotal regulator of intestinal lipid absorption via mediating the secretion of ApoA1, PRAP1 and ApoB48.

Surfeit Locus Protein 4 as a Novel Target for Therapeutic Intervention in Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

Surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF4) functions as a cargo receptor that is capable of transporting newly formed proteins from the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum into vesicles and Golgi bodies. However, the role of SURF4 in the central nervous system remains unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of SURF4 and its underlying mechanisms in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats, and whether it can be used effectively for novel therapeutic intervention. We also examined whether transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) can exert a neuroprotective effect via SURF4-dependent signalling. Following cerebral I/R injury in rats, a significant increase was observed in the expression of SURF4. In both I/R injury and oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) insult, suppressing the expression of SURF4 demonstrated a neuroprotective effect, while overexpression of SURF4 resulted in increased neuronal death. We further showed that the levels of nerve growth factor precursor (proNGF), p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), sortilin, and PTEN were increased following cerebral I/R injury, and that SURF4 acted through the PTEN/proNGF signal pathway to regulate neuronal viability. We demonstrated that tDCS treatment reduced SURF4 expression and decreased the infarct volume after cerebral I/R injury. Together, this study indicates that SURF4 plays a critical role in ischemic neuronal injury and may serve as a molecular target for the development of therapeutic strategies in acute ischemic stroke.

Surf4 collaborates with Derlin-2 and Derlin-1 to mediate Cyclooxygenase-2 translocation to the cytosol for degradation.

Derlin family members participate in the retrotranslocation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen protein to the cytosol for ER-associated degradation (ERAD). However, the protein(s) facilitating their retrotranslocation remains to be explored. Using CRISPR library screening, we found that Derlin-2 and Surf4 were candidates to facilitate cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) degradation. Our results showed that Derlin-2 is the upstream of Derlin-1 and Surf4 is the downstream of Derlin-2 and Derlin-1 to facilitate COX-2 degradation. Knockdown of Derlin-2 or Surf4 impedes COX-2 ubiquitination and the interaction of COX-2 with caveolin-1 and p97 in cytosol. Additionally, COX-2 degradation is N-glycosylation-dependent. Although Derlin-2 facilitates N-glycosylated COX-2 degradation, the interaction of Derlin-2 with COX-2 is independent of COX-2 N-glycosylation. Derlin-1, Surf4 and p97 preferentially interact with non-glycosylated COX-2, while caveolin-1 preferentially interacts with N-glycosylated COX-2, regardless of the N-glycosylation patterns. Collectively, our results reveal that Surf4 collaborates with Derlin-2 and Derlin-1 to mediate COX-2 translocation from the ER lumen to the cytosol. The Derlin-2/Derlin-1/Surf4/Cav-1 machinery may represent a unique pathway to accelerate COX-2 degradation in ERAD.

Surf4 (Surfeit Locus Protein 4) Deficiency Reduces Intestinal Lipid Absorption and Secretion and Decreases Metabolism in Mice.

Postprandial dyslipidemia is a causative risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The majority of absorbed dietary lipids are packaged into chylomicron and then delivered to circulation. Previous studies showed that Surf4 (surfeit locus protein 4) mediates very low-density lipoprotein secretion from hepatocytes. Silencing hepatic Surf4 markedly reduces the development of atherosclerosis in different mouse models of atherosclerosis without causing hepatic steatosis. However, the role of Surf4 in chylomicron secretion is unknown. We developed inducible intestinal-specific Surf4 knockdown mice (Surf4IKO) using Vil1Cre-ERT2 and Surf4flox mice. Metabolic cages were used to monitor mouse metabolism. Enzymatic kits were employed to measure serum and tissue lipid levels. The expression of target genes was detected by qRT-PCR and Western Blot. Transmission electron microscopy and radiolabeled oleic acid were used to assess the structure of enterocytes and intestinal lipid absorption and secretion, respectively. Proteomics was performed to determine changes in protein expression in serum and jejunum. Surf4IKO mice, especially male Surf4IKO mice, displayed significant body weight loss, increased mortality, and reduced metabolism. Surf4IKO mice exhibited lipid accumulation in enterocytes and impaired fat absorption and secretion. Lipid droplets and small lipid vacuoles were accumulated in the cytosol and the endoplasmic reticulum lumen of the enterocytes of Surf4IKO mice, respectively. Surf4 colocalized with apoB and co-immunoprecipitated with apoB48 in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Intestinal Surf4 deficiency also significantly reduced serum triglyceride, cholesterol, and free fatty acid levels in mice. Proteomics data revealed that diverse pathways were altered in Surf4IKO mice. In addition, Surf4IKO mice had mild liver damage, decreased liver size and weight, and reduced hepatic triglyceride levels. Our findings demonstrate that intestinal Surf4 plays an essential role in lipid absorption and chylomicron secretion and suggest that the therapeutic use of Surf4 inhibition requires highly cell/tissue-specific targeting.

Transcriptome-referenced association study provides insights into the regulation of oil and fatty acid biosynthesis in Torreya grandis kernel

IntroductionTorreya grandis is a gymnosperm belonging to Taxodiaceae. As an economically important tree, its kernels are edible and rich in oil with high unsaturated fatty acids, such as sciadonic acid. However, the kernels from different T. grandis landraces exhibit fatty acid and oil content variations. ObjectivesAs a gymnosperm, does T. grandis have special regulation mechanisms for oil biosynthesis? The aim of this study was to dissect the genetic architecture of fatty acid and oil content and the underlying mechanism in T. grandis. MethodsWe constructed a high integrity reference sequence of expressed regions of the genome in T. grandis and performed transcriptome-referenced association study (TRAS) for 10 fatty acid and oil traits of kernels in the 170 diverse T. grandis landraces. To confirm the TRAS result, we performed functional validation and molecular biology experiments for oil significantly associated genes. ResultsWe identified 41 SNPs from 34 transcripts significantly associated with 7 traits by TRAS (−log10 (P) greater than 6.0). Results showed that LOB domain-containing protein 40 (LBD40) and surfeit locus protein 1 (SURF1) may be indirectly involved in the regulation of oil and sciadonic acid biosynthesis, respectively. Moreover, overexpression of TgLBD40 significantly increased seed oil content. The nonsynonymous variant in the TgLBD40 coding region discovered by TRAS could alter the oil content in plants. Pearson’s correlation analysis and dual-luciferase assay indicated that TgLBD40 positively enhanced oil accumulation by affecting oil biosynthesis pathway genes, such as TgDGAT1. ConclusionOur study provides new insights into the genetic basis of oil biosynthesis in T. grandis and demonstrates that integrating RNA sequencing and TRAS is a powerful strategy to perform association study independent of a reference genome for dissecting important traits in T. grandis.

Differences in lipid accumulation and mobilization in the hepatopancreas and ovary of female mud crab (Scylla paramamosain, Estampador, 1949) during ovarian development

The accumulation and mobilization of lipids and fatty acids are known to vary greatly between the ovary and hepatopancreas of crab broodstock during ovarian development. However, the underlying mechanism is not completely understood. In the present study, we analyzed and compared the biochemical compositions and expression profiles of lipid metabolism-related genes during each maturation stage in Scylla paramamosain. The results revealed that ovaries deposited large amounts of total lipid contents with a predominance of neutral lipids, mainly triacylglycerol (TAG), rich in high levels of saturated fatty acids throughout ovarian development. Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP), surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF4) and apolipocrustacein (ApoCr) transcription levels were significantly increased in the hepatopancreas as did transcription levels of the vitellogenin receptor (VTGR) in the ovary during ovarian development (P < 0.05). We speculated the possible mechanism by which MTP transported TAG to ApoCr, then SURF4 conveyed ApoCr from the hepatopancreas to the hemolymph during ovarian development, and finally, ApoCr was absorbed by the VTGR of oocytes, leading to a higher gonadosomatic index (GSI) and lipid deposition regulated by lipogenesis and lipolysis genes. These results are considered to provide fundamental information for further reproductive biology research on female mud crabs.

Export of polybasic motif–containing secretory proteins BMP8A and SFRP1 from the endoplasmic reticulum is regulated by surfeit locus protein 4

In the conventional secretory pathway, cargo receptors play important roles in exporting newly synthesized secretory proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We previously showed that a cargo receptor, surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF4), promotes ER export of a soluble signaling molecule, sonic hedgehog, via recognizing the polybasic residues within its Cardin-Weintraub motif. In addition to sonic hedgehog, we found 30 more secretory proteins containing the polybasic motif (K/R)(K/R)(K/R)XX(K/R)(K/R), but whether SURF4 plays a general role in mediating ER export of these secretory proteins is unclear. Here, we analyzed the trafficking of four of these secretory proteins: desert hedgehog, Indian hedgehog, bone morphogenetic protein 8A (BMP8A), and secreted frizzled-related protein 1 (SFRP1). We found that the polybasic motifs contained in these cargo proteins are important for their ER export. Further analyses indicated that the polybasic motifs of BMP8A and SFRP1 interact with the triacidic motif on the predicted first luminal domain of SURF4. These interactions with SURF4 are essential and sufficient for the ER-to-Golgi trafficking of BMP8A and SFRP1. Moreover, we demonstrated that SURF4 localizes at a subpopulation of ER exit sites to regulate the ER export of its clients. Taken together, these results suggest that SURF4 is recruited to specific ER exit sites and plays a general role in capturing polybasic motif-containing secretory cargo proteins through electrostatic interactions.

Mitochondrial respiration restricts Listeria monocytogenes infection by slowing down host cell receptor recycling.

SummaryMutations in mitochondrial genes impairing energy production cause mitochondrial diseases (MDs), and clinical studies have shown that MD patients are prone to bacterial infections. However, the relationship between mitochondrial (dys)function and infection remains largely unexplored, especially in epithelial cells, the first barrier to many pathogens. Here, we generate an epithelial cell model for one of the most common mitochondrial diseases, Leigh syndrome, by deleting surfeit locus protein 1 (SURF1), an assembly factor for respiratory chain complex IV. We use this genetic model and a complementary, nutrient-based approach to modulate mitochondrial respiration rates and show that impaired mitochondrial respiration favors entry of the human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, a well-established bacterial infection model. Reversely, enhanced mitochondrial energy metabolism decreases infection efficiency. We further demonstrate that endocytic recycling is reduced in mitochondrial respiration-dependent cells, dampening L. monocytogenes infection by slowing the recycling of its host cell receptor c-Met, highlighting a previously undescribed role of mitochondrial respiration during infection.

Surf4 facilitates reprogramming by activating the cellular response to endoplasmic reticulum stress.

ObjectivesMaternal factors that are enriched in oocytes have attracted great interest as possible key factors in somatic cell reprogramming. We found that surfeit locus protein 4 (Surf4), a maternal factor, can facilitate the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) previously, but the mechanism remains elusive.Materials and MethodsIn this study, we investigated the function and mechanism of Surf4 in somatic cell reprogramming using a secondary reprogramming system. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) staining, qPCR and immunofluorescence (IF) staining of expression of related markers were used to evaluate efficiency of iPSCs derived from mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Embryoid body and teratoma formation assays were performed to evaluate the differentiation ability of the iPSC lines. RNA‐seq, qPCR and western blot analysis were applied to validate the downstream targets of Surf4.ResultsSurf4 can significantly facilitate the generation of iPSCs in a proliferation‐independent manner. When co‐expressed with Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c‐Myc (OSKM), Surf4 can activate the response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress at the early stage of reprogramming. We further demonstrated that Hspa5, a major ER chaperone, and the active spliced form of Xbp1 (sXbp1), a major mediator of ER stress, can mimic the effects of Surf4 on somatic cell reprogramming. Concordantly, blocking the unfolded protein response compromises the effect of Surf4 on reprogramming.ConclusionsSurf4 promotes somatic cell reprogramming by activating the response to ER stress.

Adeno-associated viral vector serotype 9-based gene replacement therapy for SURF1-related Leigh syndrome

SURF1 (surfeit locus protein 1)-related Leigh syndrome is an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by reduction in complex IV activity, resulting in disrupted mitochondrial function. Currently, there are no treatment options available. To test our hypothesis that adeno-associated viral vector serotype 9 (AAV9)/human SURF1 (hSURF1) gene replacement therapy can provide a potentially meaningful and long-term therapeutic benefit, we conducted preclinical efficacy studies using SURF1 knockout mice and safety evaluations with wild-type (WT) mice. Our data indicate that with a single intrathecal (i.t.) administration, our treatment partially and significantly rescued complex IV activity in all tissues tested, including liver, brain, and muscle. Accordingly, complex IV content (examined via MT-CO1 protein expression level) also increased with our treatment. In a separate group of mice, AAV9/hSURF1 mitigated the blood lactic acidosis induced by exhaustive exercise at 9 months post-dosing. A toxicity study in WT mice showed no adverse effects in either the in-life portion or after microscopic examination of major tissues up to a year following the same treatment regimen. Taken together, our data suggest a single dose, i.t. administration of AAV9/hSURF1 is safe and effective in improving biochemical abnormalities induced by SURF1 deficiency with potential applicability for SURF1-related Leigh syndrome patients.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 induces IRE1-XBP1–dependent endoplasmic reticulum biogenesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) plays a key role in proliferation and galactopoiesis in mammary epithelial cells (MEC), but its definitive functions on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during protein synthesis remain unknown. The present study aimed to elucidate the effects of IGF-1 on ER biogenesis in MEC in vitro and examined the expression of ER biogenesis-associated genes in the mammary gland during early lactation. We treated mammary alveolar cells-large T antigen cells (immortalized bovine MEC line established via stable transfection with simian virus-40 large T-antigen) with IGF-1 and examined ER biogenesis using the fluorescence intensity of an ER tracker and quantitative real-time PCR. We found IGF-1 significantly increased ER tracker staining and upregulated mRNA levels of ER biogenesis-related genes, such as CHKA (choline kinase α), PCYT1A (choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase A), and SURF4 (surfeit locus protein 4). We focused on unfolded protein response to explore molecular mechanisms by which IGF-1 induces ER biogenesis. We found IGF-1 significantly increased mRNA levels of the XBP1 splicing form (XBP1s). Based on western blot analysis, IGF-1 induced the expression of (inositol-requiring kinase 1 α) protein, upstream of XBP1s, and phosphorylated-IRE1α. The inhibition of IRE1 endoribonuclease activity with 4-methylumbelliferone 8-carbaldehyde (4μ8C) significantly suppressed the increase in ER tracker fluorescence and ER biogenesis-related gene expression induced by IGF-1. Also, IGF-1-induced XBP1s and ER biogenesis-associated gene expression was inhibited by rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTORC1 (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1), indicating that IRE1-XBP1 activation by IGF-1 is mediated by mTORC1. Moreover, to clarify the expression of XBP1s and ER biogenesis-associated genes expression under normal physiological conditions, mammary gland tissue from biopsies of dairy cows during late gestation and lactation were analyzed. In vivo data highlighted the significant increases in the mRNA levels of XBP1s and ER biogenesis-related genes in mammary gland tissue immediately after calving through 6 wk of lactation. The mRNA levels of IGF1R (IGF-1 receptor) in mammary glands increased during 6 wk of lactation. Therefore, the present study indicated for the first time that IGF-1 induces ER biogenesis by activating the IRE1-XBP1 axis under the regulation of mTORC1 in bovine MEC line.

Autocrine effects of PCSK9 on cardiomyocytes

Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is in the focus of cardiovascular research due to its role in hepatic low density lipoprotein (LDL) clearance. However, extrahepatic expression of PCSK9 such as in cardiomyocytes and its regulation by oxidized LDL (oxLDL) put notion on extrahepatic effects of PCSK9 as well. This study was aimed to reveal the role of PCSK9 in oxLDL-dependent regulation of cardiomyocyte function. Adult rat and mouse ventricular cardiomyocytes and isolated perfused hearts were used. OxLDL was applied to increase PCSK9 expression in cardiomyocytes. Cell function was analyzed by load-free cell shortening as well as left ventricular developed pressure of isolated hearts. OxLDL decreased shortening in wild-type-derived mouse cardiomyocytes but not in those isolated from PCSK9 knockout mice. Overexpression of human PCSK9 in rat cardiomyocytes reduced shortening in the absence of oxLDL. Addition of recombinant PCSK9 mimicked these effects. In cardiomyocytes, oxLDL induced PCSK9 release into the supernatant. Inhibition of PCSK9 by Pep 2–8 or alirocumab attenuated the oxLDL-induced loss of cardiomyocyte shortening. Cardiomyocytes express surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF-4), a protein required for PCSK9 secretion in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293 T), and silencing of SURF-4 reduced the oxLDL effects on cardiomyocytes. In isolated perfused rat hearts PCSK9 inhibition by alirocumab improved the function. In addition, left ventricular function of isolated hearts from PCSK9 knockout mice was increased under basal conditions as well as at 10 min and 120 min of reperfusion following 45 min of ischemia. Collectively, the data show that cardiomyocytes express and release PCSK9 that acts in an autocrine way on cardiomyocytes and impairs their function.

A Genome Scale CRISPR Screen Identifies the ER Cargo Receptor That Facilitates the Efficient Secretion of Erythropoietin

Abstract Erythropoietin (EPO) is a plasma glycoprotein that binds erythroid progenitors in the bone marrow and stimulates their proliferation and differentiation. EPO is secreted into the circulation by specialized kidney peritubular fibroblasts. Though the transcriptional regulation of EPO production has been well studied, the intracellular regulation of EPO trafficking remains poorly understood. In an effort to identify genes involved in EPO secretion, we developed a genome-wide functional screen that provides a quantifiable and selectable readout of intracellular EPO accumulation. In order to perform such a screen, we generated a reporter HEK293T cell line stably expressing EPO fused to GFP and as an internal control, alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) fused to mCherry. We showed that both EPO and A1AT are efficiently secreted from the cell and that treatment with Brefeldin A (which disrupts endoplasmic reticulum [ER] to Golgi transport) results in intracellular accumulation of EPO and A1AT. These findings demonstrate that the machinery required for the efficient secretion of EPO via the classical secretory pathway is intact in this cell line. To identify genes that affect EPO secretion, we mutagenized the reporter cell line with a CRISPR/Cas9 knock-out library (GeCKO-v2), which delivers SpCas9, a puromycin resistance cassette, and a pooled collection of 123,411 single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) that include six independent sgRNAs targeting nearly every coding gene in the human genome. Transduction was performed at low multiplicity of infection (MOI ~0.3), such that most infected cells receive 1 sgRNA to mutate 1 gene in the genome. Puromycin selection was applied from days 1-4 post-transduction. After 14 days, cells with normal mCherry but increased (top 7%) or decreased (bottom 7%) GFP fluorescence were isolated. Integrated sgRNAs sequences were quantified by deep sequencing and analyzed for their enrichment in the GFP high compared to the GFP low population. This strategy allows the identification of genes that affect EPO but not A1AT levels, therefore ruling out genes that affect global secretion. This screen, performed in triplicates, identified that the sgRNAs targeting surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF4) are the mostly enriched sgRNAs (at the gene level) in the GFP high population: 5 out of 6 sgRNAs targeting SURF4 were enriched in the GFP high population, at a genome-wide statistical level. To validate these results, we generated a sgRNA targeting SURF4 and demonstrated that SURF4 deletion results in intra-cellular accumulation of EPO with no effect on A1AT. We confirmed these results in several independent reporter cell line clones, excluding an artifact unique to the original reporter clone used in the screen. Additionally, the intracellular EPO accumulation in SURF4 deficient cells was rescued by SURF4 cDNA, ruling out an off-target sgRNA effect. We next showed that SURF4 interacts with EPO (by co-immunoprecipitation) and that EPO accumulates in the ER of SURF4 deleted cells (using endo-H and fluorescent confocal microscopy). In contrast to EPO, we found that SURF4 deletion does not result in the intracellular accumulation of a related glycoprotein, thrombopoietin. To examine if SURF4 facilitates the secretion of EPO when expressed at a more physiological level, we deleted SURF4 in HEP3B cells induced to express EPO from its endogenous locus and found that SURF4 also mediates the secretion of EPO under these conditions. Taken together, the studies summarized above demonstrate that SURF4 is the ER cargo receptor that promotes the efficient secretion of EPO. Additional work is currently ongoing to further characterize the role of SURF4 in the secretion of EPO. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 and lipid metabolism.

The purpose of this review is to highlight the recent findings of one of the most promising therapeutic targets in LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) management, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). Endoplasmic reticulum cargo receptor, surfeit locus protein 4 interacts with PCSK9 and regulates its exit from endoplasmic reticulum and its secretion. Once secreted, PCSK9 binds to heparin sulfate proteoglycans on the hepatocyte surface and this binding is required for PCSK9-LDL receptor (LDLR) complex formation and LDLR degradation. Posttranscriptionally, recent work has shown that PCSK9 gets degraded in lysosomes by activation of the glucagon receptor signaling, providing more data on the hormonal regulation of PCSK9. Finally, human studies with PCSK9 inhibitors offered more evidence on their benefits and safe use. Recent work on the regulation of PCSK9 has enhanced our understanding of its biology, which may provide important information for future PCSK9-based therapies.

Compositional adaptability in NPM1-SURF6 scaffolding networks enabled by dynamic switching of phase separation mechanisms

The nucleolus, the site for ribosome biogenesis contains hundreds of proteins and several types of RNA. The functions of many non-ribosomal nucleolar proteins are poorly understood, including Surfeit locus protein 6 (SURF6), an essential disordered protein with roles in ribosome biogenesis and cell proliferation. SURF6 co-localizes with Nucleophosmin (NPM1), a highly abundant protein that mediates the liquid-like features of the granular component region of the nucleolus through phase separation. Here, we show that electrostatically-driven interactions between disordered regions of NPM1 and SURF6 drive liquid-liquid phase separation. We demonstrate that co-existing heterotypic (NPM1-SURF6) and homotypic (NPM1-NPM1) scaffolding interactions within NPM1-SURF6 liquid-phase droplets dynamically and seamlessly interconvert in response to variations in molecular crowding and protein concentrations. We propose a mechanism wherein NPM1-dependent nucleolar scaffolds are modulated by non-ribosomal proteins through active rearrangements of interaction networks that can possibly contribute to the directionality of ribosomal biogenesis within the liquid-like nucleolus.

Surf4 (Erv29p) binds amino-terminal tripeptide motifs of soluble cargo proteins with different affinities, enabling prioritization of their exit from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Some secreted proteins that assemble into large complexes, such as extracellular matrices or hormones and enzymes in storage granules, must be kept at subaggregation concentrations during intracellular trafficking. We show surfeit locus protein 4 (Surf4) is the cargo receptor that establishes different steady-state concentrations for a variety of soluble cargo proteins within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through interaction with the amino-terminal tripeptides exposed after removal of leader sequences. We call this motif the ER-Exit by Soluble Cargo using Amino-terminal Peptide-Encoding motif (ER-ESCAPE motif). Proteins that most readily aggregate in the ER lumen (e.g., dentin sialophosphoprotein [DSPP] and amelogenin, X-linked [AMELX]) have strong ER-ESCAPE motifs to inhibit aggregate formation, while less susceptible cargo exhibits weaker motifs. Specific changes in a single amino acid of the tripeptide result in aggregate formation and failure to efficiently traffic cargo out of the ER. A logical subset of 8,000 possible tripeptides starting a model soluble cargo protein (growth hormone) established a continuum of steady-state ER concentrations ranging from low (i.e., high affinity for receptor) to the highest concentrations associated with bulk flow–limited trafficking observed for nonbinding motifs. Human cells lacking Surf4 no longer preferentially trafficked cargo expressing strong ER-ESCAPE motifs. Reexpression of Surf4 or expression of yeast’s ortholog, ER-derived vesicles protein 29 (Erv29p), rescued enhanced ER trafficking in Surf4-null cells. Hence our work describes a new way of preferentially exporting soluble cargo out of the ER that maintains proteins below the concentrations at which they form damaging aggregates.

Emerging functional cross-talk between the Keap1-Nrf2 system and mitochondria

Nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) was originally identified as a positive regulator of drug detoxifying enzyme gene expression during exposure to environmental electrophiles. Currently, Nrf2 is known to regulate the expression of hundreds of cytoprotective genes to counteract endogenously or exogenously generated oxidative stress. Furthermore, when activated in human tumors by somatic mutations, Nrf2 confers growth advantages and chemoresistance by regulating genes involved in various processes such as the pentose phosphate pathway and nucleotide synthesis in addition to antioxidant proteins. Interestingly, increasing evidence shows that Nrf2 is associated with mitochondrial biogenesis during environmental stresses in certain tissues such as the heart. Furthermore, SKN-1, a functional homolog of Nrf2 in C. elegans, is activated by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and extends life span by promoting mitochondrial homeostasis (i.e., mitohormesis). Similarly, Nrf2 activation was recently observed in the heart of surfeit locus protein 1 (Surf1) -/- mice in which cellular respiration was decreased due to cytochrome c oxidase defects. In this review, we critically examine the relationship between Nrf2 and mitochondria and argue that the Nrf2 stress pathway intimately communicates with mitochondria to maintain cellular homeostasis during oxidative stress.