Increase In Surface Pressure Research Articles

Experimental and numerical study on the force transmission in granular packings under the hypergravity

Granular materials are ubiquitous in our environment, and their mechanical behavior is determined by particle-scale properties. The contact forces under hypergravity, which are crucial to planetary geology, remain underexplored, while extensive research has focused on behavior under surface pressure. We measured the contact forces between granular particles using a novel matrix film sensor under both hypergravity and surface pressure conditions, which were achieved in centrifugal and servo-hydraulic tests. Additionally, computations using the discrete element method were conducted to investigate the different patterns of force transmission from a microscopic perspective. We found an intriguing invariance in the contact force distribution under increased surface pressure. However, hypergravity enhances the contact forces between unjammed fine particles, causing contact forces converge to the distribution observed under surface pressure. Finally, a power-law fitted correlation was proposed to estimate the difference in contact force distributions between conditions of hypergravity and equivalent surface pressure.

Facile preparation and study of supramolecular architecture of an efficient nanocomposite LB film AHSM/SA based on azo-functionalized hockey stick-shaped mesogen at air-water and air-solid interface

Hockey stick-shaped mesogens are fascinating thermotropic liquid crystal systems owing to their exceptional supramolecular assembly properties and shape anisotropy compared to conventional rod-and bent-shaped mesogens. In this article, we present an investigation of the supramolecular organization of a new azo-functionalized hockey stick-shaped mesogen with stearic acid at the air-water interface and air-solid interfaces by applying the Langmuir-Blodgett film deposition method. The incorporation of stearic acid can change the molecular organization of azo-functionalized hockey stick-shaped mesogen at an aqueous interface through hydrophobic-hydrophobic interactions and form a supramolecular nanostructure at the solid interface. The interfacial nature of the Langmuir monolayer was studied by recording the isotherm (surface pressure area, π–A), which was further analyzed by using Brewster angle microscopy. The significant reduction in molecular area, increased surface pressure, and lower isotherm slope of the AHSM/SA composite mixture indicate the hybrid AHSM/SA monolayer's greater stability compared to pure AHSM. BAM images of the AHSM/SA composite signify nanostructure aggregates formed by the interaction of AHSM and SA molecules at the air-water interface. Field emission scanning electron microscopic analysis of composite films revealed the formation of supramolecular domains. The impact of changing the surface pressure and the number of depositions on the morphology of the composite film surface was monitored using field emission scanning electron microscopy. The supramolecular H-type aggregation of azo-functionalized hockey stick-shaped mesogen and stearic acid molecules in the composite LB film was characterized using UV–visible absorption and steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. The adsorption of stearic acid onto azo-functionalized hockey stick-shaped mesogen via hydrophobic interactions was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the composite Langmuir Blodgett film. Further, Raman spectroscopy of the LB films of the AHSM/SA composites is distinct from the pristine film components due to the merging of signals at similar wave numbers for both SA and AHSM with a lack of typical packing pattern further supported by PXRD studies of the films.

Physicochemical Studies on Amino Acid Based Metallosurfactants in Combination with Phospholipid.

Dicarboxylate metallosurfactants (AASM), synthesized by mixing N-dodecyl aminomalonate, -aspartate and -glutamate with CaCl2, MnCl2 and CdCl2, were characterized by XRD, FTIR, and NMR spectroscopy. Layered structures, formed by metallosurfactants, were evidenced from differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analyses. Solvent-spread monolayer of AASM in combination with soyphosphatidylcholine (SPC) and cholesterol (CHOL) were studied using Langmuir surface balance. With increasing mole fraction of AASM mean molecular area increased and passed through maxima at ~60 mol% of AASMs, indicating molecular packing reorganization. Systems with 20 and 60 mol% AASM exhibited positive deviations from ideal behavior signifying repulsive interaction between the AASM and SPC, while synergistic interactions were established from the negative deviation at other combinations. Dynamic surface elasticity increased with increasing surface pressure signifying formation of rigid monolayer. Transition of monolayer from gaseous to liquid expanded to liquid condensed state was established by Brewster angle microscopic studies. Stability of the hybrid vesicles, formed by AASM+SPC+CHOL, were established by monitoring their size, zeta potential and polydispersity index values over 100 days. Size and spherical morphology of hybrid vesicles were confirmed by transmission electron microscopic studies. Biocompatibility of the hybrid vesicles were established by cytotoxicity studies revealing their possible applications in drug delivery and imaging.

Numerical assessment of changes in land–atmosphere interactions during the rainy season in South America using an updated vegetation map

AbstractLand Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) is a key driver of changes in land–atmosphere interactions, playing an essential role in climate and weather patterns in South America (SA). This study used a modelling approach to assess the land–atmosphere changes introduced by LULCC over the Brazilian territory. Numerical experiments of early (2006), neutral (2004) and late (2008) rainy season onset years were performed in the Integrated BIosphere Simulator (IBIS) to assess the land‐surface parameters, and in Brazilian Atmospheric Model (BAM) to assess the atmospheric variables. The models were run with a natural (NAT) vegetation map and an updated (UP) vegetation map, which incorporated realistic Brazil deforestation up to the early 2000s. The differences between the two maps were particularly larger over 25°–15°S and 50°–40°W, where the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes were replaced by pasture. IBIS experiments showed that over the area of larger LULCC there was an increase in albedo of up to 8% while reductions in net radiation, surface heat fluxes, surface temperature and surface roughness were noticed. Land–atmosphere feedbacks assessed with BAM experiments showed that LULCC contributed to a drier and colder (stable) atmosphere over central‐east SA that opposes the necessary conditions for the rainy season onset. The changes included increases in surface pressure and low‐level wind associated with reductions in 2 m temperature and surface roughness. These changes contributed to decrease the cloud formation and less precipitation in all three rainy season onset years, but particularly in the late rainy season onset year during September–October–November (SON). The atmospheric changes induced by LULCC show a pattern of dry atmosphere (reduced precipitation), similar to those of late onset years, and indicate that LULCC enhances the late rainy season onset condition over central‐east SA. Additionally, this study highlights the importance of considering up‐to‐date vegetation maps because these changes significantly affect both surface and atmospheric variables.

The influence of cholesterol and calcium ions on the interaction of cryoprotectors with a biological membrane model

In this work, we studied the effects of three cryoprotectors – ethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide and sucrose – on the compression isotherms of egg yolk Langmuir monolayers both in the presence and in the absence of cholesterol in the monolayer. The influence of calcium ions from the subphase affecting the effectiveness of cryoprotection on π-A isotherms is also examined. In addition, the elastic properties of the obtained monolayers are investigated by calculation and comparison the compression modulus of the monolayer. The scientific novelty of the work is in consideration of a complex biosimilar system (an egg yolk monolayer, cholesterol and their mixtures) on the surface of the aqueous solution of the nutrient mixture and obtaining information about the specific interaction of different cryoprotectors with lipid membranes. We found that when calcium ions and cryoprotectors are simultaneously added to the subphase, they block each other's influence on the lipid monolayer and reduce the effectiveness of cryoprotection. Cholesterol in the yolk in a ratio of 1:50 m m−1 changes the properties of the monolayer, which leads to increased action of cryoprotectors. Also, for the first time, the effect of a significant increase in surface pressure (by ∼20 mN m−1) was detected when cryoprotectors were added to the system under consideration. This effect can serve as an indicator of the effectiveness of membrane dehydration by cryoprotectors and can be used to find the most effective and safe cryoprotector compositions. The obtained data can provide important recommendations for the development of cryoprotective media for cell freezing. Since the study of the mechanisms of calcium interaction (the most important signaling cation) with biological membrane and membrane-like systems is important for understanding the various effects caused by medicinal and biologically active drugs at the cellular level, the study is of interest for various fields of biophysics and biomedicine.

Study of the engineering performance of pipes buried in the soil

This paper investigates the response of a flexible buried pipe to traffic load using laboratory experiments and numerical analysis. A series of laboratory tests and numerical simulations were performed to examine the effect of surface pressure, loading width, pipe type, pipe thickness, and burial depth on model response. In the experiments, a load was applied to the surface of a tank in which a pipe was buried. To gain a better understanding of the pipe's behavior, numerical simulations were performed using the finite element method; PLAXIS 2-D software. The results show that there is a good agreement between numerical and experimental test results. Furthermore, experimental and numerical analysis show that increasing burial depth reduces pipe deflection, increases soil surface settlement, and decreases pipe pressure, whereas increasing surface pressure increases all of the above parameters. Finally, equations were developed based on all numerical and experimental results to predict maximum stress on the pipe crown.

Impact of precipitation mass sinks on midlatitude storms in idealized simulations across a wide range of climates

Abstract. The combination of precipitation formation and fallout affects atmospheric flows through the release of latent heat and through the removal of mass from the atmosphere, but because the mass of water vapor is only a small fraction of the total mass of Earth's atmosphere, precipitation mass sinks are often neglected in theory and models. However, a small number of modeling studies suggest that water mass sources and sinks can intensify heavily precipitating weather systems. These studies point to a need to more systematically verify the impact of neglecting precipitation mass sinks, particularly for warmer and moister climates in which precipitation rates can be much higher. In this paper, we add precipitation mass sources and sinks to an idealized general circulation model and examine their effects on steady-state midlatitude storm track statistics. The model has several idealizations, including that all condensates immediately fall out of the atmosphere, and is run across a wide range of climates, including very warm climates. We find that modifying the model to include mass sources and sinks has no detectable effect on midlatitude variability or extremes, even in climates much warmer and moister than the modern. However, we find that a 10-fold exaggeration of mass sources and sinks is sufficient to produce more intense midlatitude weather extremes and increase surface pressure variance. This result is consistent with theoretical potential vorticity analysis, which suggests that the dynamical effects of mass sources and sinks are much smaller than the dynamical effects of accompanying latent heating unless mass sinks are artificially amplified by at least a factor of 10. Finally, we use simulations of “tropical cyclone worlds” to attempt to reconcile our results with earlier work showing stronger deepening in a simulation of a tropical cyclone case study when precipitation mass sinks were included. We demonstrate that abruptly “turning on” mass sources and sinks can lead to stronger transient deepening in some individual storms (consistent with results of past work) but weaker transient deepening in other storms, without modifying the steady-state statistics of storms in equilibrium with the large-scale environment (consistent with our other results). Our results provide a firmer foundation for using general circulation models that neglect moist mass sources and sinks in climate simulations, even in climates much warmer than today, while leaving open the possibility that their inclusion might lead to short-term improvements in forecast skill.

Adsorption of CMIT/MIT on the Model Pulmonary Surfactant Monolayers.

Polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG) is a guanidine-based chemical that has long been used as an antimicrobial agent. However, recently raised concerns regarding the pulmonary toxicity of PHMG in humans and aquatic organisms have led to research in this area. Along with PHMG, there are concerns about the safety of non-guanidine 5-chloro-2-methylisothiazol-3(2H)-one/2-methylisothiazol-3(2H)-one (CMIT/MIT) in human lungs; however, the safety of such chemicals can be affected by many factors, and it is difficult to rationalize their toxicity. In this study, we investigated the adsorption characteristics of CMIT/ MIT on a model pulmonary surfactant (lung surfactant, LS) using a Langmuir trough attached to a fluorescence microscope. Analysis of the π-A isotherms and lipid raft morphology revealed that CMIT/MIT exhibited minimal adsorption onto the LS monolayer deposited at the air/water interface. Meanwhile, PHMG showed clear signs of adsorption to LS, as manifested by the acceleration of the L o phase growth with increasing surface pressure. Consequently, in the presence of CMIT/MIT, the interfacial properties of the model LS monolayer exhibited significantly fewer changes than PHMG.

PH-induced physiochemical and structural changes of milk proteins mixtures and its effect on foaming behavior

Milk proteins are well known to produce aerated food due to the amphiphilicity. However, milk proteins are commonly added in blends for the desirable properties in food industry. In this study, the foaming properties of milk protein mixtures (MPM), a mixtures of whey protein isolated (WPI) and milk protein concentrate (MPC), was studied through foaming capacity (FC), foam stability (FS), and foam morphology at pH 3.0–9.0. Physiochemical, structural, surface properties, and Pearson correlation analysis were measured to gain insight into foaming behavior. Results indicated that MPM showed excellent FC (113.0–114.3 %) and FS (90.7–93.0 %) at pH 6.0–9.0, and foam displayed a smaller size and uniform distribution. MPM solutions showed smaller particles, higher solubility, and lower apparent viscosity at pH 6.0–9.0, which resulted in an increase in surface pressure and adsorption rate (Kdiff), facilitating more protein absorbed to interface. To further investigate structural changes, various spectral methods were used, in which the structure of MPM was changed with pH. Correlation analysis further suggests that Kdiff and solubility positively affect the formation of foam, while free sulfhydryl and β-sheet contributed to stabilizing foams. These findings provide valuable information on MPM as ingredients for aerated foods under acidic, neutral, and alkaline conditions.

Tandem cylinder aeroacoustic sources

Tandem cylinders in turbulent flow are found in aircraft landing gear, chimney stacks, power lines, and bridge piers. The aim of this paper is to present detailed unsteady surface pressure measurements for tandem cylinders. These unsteady surface pressures are the major sources of noise in this important fundamental test case. A series of experiments were conducted in the UNSW anechoic wind tunnel to investigate the sound generation and flow distortion from a downstream cylinder interacting with wake from an upstream cylinder. This wake is highly anisotropic, containing large vortex shedding scales as well as energetic broadband components. The experiments were conducted using PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) to obtain instantaneous flow fields and remote microphones to capture unsteady surface pressure measurements. Microphones were positioned outside the flow to record far-field noise. The cylinder was rotated to obtain surface pressure around the circumference. The acoustic results for the tandem cylinder case were compared with noise generation from a single cylinder in uniform flow. An increase in both surface pressure and far-field noise was observed in the tonal and broadband components. It was concluded that interaction with the wake of the upstream cylinder significantly increased the unsteady surface pressure of the downstream cylinder.

A novel wake flow control method for drag reduction of a high-speed train with vortex generators installing on streamlined tail nose

The head/tail of a high-speed train has been designed in a streamlined way to achieve good aerodynamic performance, which leads to the flow separation point moving close to the tail nose tip. Therefore, the conventional way with some add-ons, i.e., the passive flow control, to suppress the flow separation in advance is not a good choice for this train wake flow improvement. Also, with the increase of the train speed, it is urgent to study new methods for the aerodynamic drag reduction of the train. The wake of the high-speed train is characterized by a pair of counter-rotating vortices, contributing to low surface pressure on the streamlined tail and posing a risk to the train operation. Thus, lowering the intensity of counter-rotating vortices and enhancing the surface pressure become a significantly potential drag reduction method. In the current study, a novel wake flow control method, named the vortex intensity reduction theory (VIRT), for the drag reduction of a high-speed train with vortex generators installing on the streamlined tail nose, was proposed to generate a pair of vortices with opposite rotating directions, expecting to weaken the wake vortices and have a higher-pressure distribution on the tail, as compared to the base case. The results show that with the installation of vortex generators (VGs), the train wake flow intensity is suppressed, and the influence region is reduced, resulting in the better train wake flow structures, as compared to the train without VGs. The VGs have significant impact on the aerodynamic performance of the tail car, while this effect is not evidently observed on the head and middle cars. The VGs contribute to the surface pressure increase on the streamlined tail, resulting into a reduction of pressure difference between the head and tail cars. As a result, a reduction of 5.11% in the aerodynamic drag and a reduction of 14.93% in the aerodynamic lift of the tail car are obtained, while for a three-car grouping train model, the reductions are about 2.23% and 72.66%, respectively. Therefore, the VIRT based on VGs proposed in this paper can effectively reduce the aerodynamic force of the tail car and alleviate the intensity of wake flow of the high-speed train, which will provide a newly potential drag reduction method of the next generation high-speed train.

HIV and SIV Envelope Glycoproteins Interact with Glycolipids and Lipids.

The present study demonstrates that, in addition to interacting with galactosylceramide (GalCer), HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV envelope glycoproteins are able to interact with glucosylceramide (GlcCer), lactosylceramide (LacCer), and ceramide. These interactions were characterized by using three complementary approaches based on molecular binding and physicochemical assays. The binding assays showed that iodinated radiolabeled HIV-1 and HIV-2 glycoproteins (125I-gp) interact physically with GalCer, GlcCer, LacCer, and ceramide previously separated by thin layer chromatography (TLC) or directly coated on a flexible 96-well plate. These interactions are specific as demonstrated, on the one hand, by the dose-dependent inhibition in the presence of various dilutions of immune, but not non-immune, sera, and, on the other hand, by the absence of interaction of these glycolipids/lipids with 125I-IgG used as an unrelated control protein. These interactions were further confirmed in a physicochemical assay, based on the capacity of these glycolipids for insertion in a pre-established monomolecular film, as a model of the cell membrane, with each glycolipid/lipid. The addition of HIV envelope glycoproteins, but not ovomucoid protein used as a negative control, resulted in a rapid increase in surface pressure of the glycolipid/lipid films, thus indirectly confirming their interactions with GalCer, GlcCer, LacCer, and ceramide. In summary, we show that HIV and SIV envelope glycoproteins bind to GalCer, GlcCer, LacCer, and ceramide in a dose-dependent, saturable, and specific manner. These interactions may function as receptors of attachment in order to facilitate infection of CD4 low or negative cells or promote interactions with other receptors leading to the activation of signaling pathways or pathogenesis.

Responsive polymer thin films

Responsive polymer thin films

Effective Distance for Vortex Generators in High Subsonic Flows

Vortex generators (VGs) are a passive method by which to alleviate boundary layer separation (BLS). The device-induced streamwise vortices propagate downstream. There is then lift-off from the surface and the vortex decays. The effectiveness of VGs depends on their geometrical configuration, spacing, and flow characteristics. In a high-speed flow regime, the VGs must be properly positioned upstream of the BLS region. Measurements using discrete pressure taps and pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) show that there is an increase in the upstream surface pressure and the downstream favorable pressure gradient. The effective distance for a flat plate in the presence of three VG configurations is determined, as is the height of the device (conventional and micro VGs).

Spatial Variation in the Synoptic Structure of Convective Systems over the Great Plains

Abstract During the summer, rainfall over the Rocky Mountains peaks in the afternoon. The diurnal time of maximum rain becomes progressively delayed in going eastward from the Rocky Mountains, such that over much of the Great Plains, maximum rain occurs near 0300 local time. We use Rapid Refresh (RAP) reanalysis data from July and August of 2009–19 to show that there is continuous spatial variation in the mean structure of the high-rain events that occur along this anomalous diurnally propagating rainfall feature. High-rain events that occur farther from the Rockies are more likely to be associated with a larger warm anomaly to the south of the rain event center, a smaller cold anomaly, a larger negative surface pressure anomaly, and increased low-level southerly meridional wind. We also use the Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) rainfall dataset to show that, on hourly time scales, afternoon rainfall that occurs over the Rocky Mountains propagates eastward onto the Great Plains but is rapidly attenuated and becomes negligible east of 100°W. This eastward rainfall propagation appears to be mediated in part by the formation of a low-level cold anomaly and increased surface pressure over the Rocky Mountains, a reversal of the upslope wind, and increased low-level zonal mass convergence over the adjacent near plains. Significance Statement Models have difficulty in simulating the diurnal time of nocturnal rainfall over the Great Plains. Deep convection in this region is often associated with severe weather. Rainfall variability over the Great Plains has a significant impact on soil moisture and agricultural productivity. This paper explores how the structure of deep convective rain events over the Great Plains varies with longitude. The results improve our understanding of deep convection development in the Great Plains and have the potential to contribute to improved forecasts of convective rainfall.

Langmuir monolayer of lysozyme at variable subphase pH conditions: a comprehensive study on structure, morphology and hysteresis behaviour.

Formation of a pure Langmuir monolayer of lysozyme at the air-water interface and its investigation by means of a surface pressure (π)-mean molecular area (A) isotherm has been accomplished under different subphase pH conditions. A normalized area-time curve confirms the stable nature of the lysozyme monolayer whose compressibility variation with an increased surface pressure at specific subphase pH has also been studied from π-A isotherms. The monolayers exhibit irreversible hysteresis behaviour irrespective of subphase pH conditions, as evidenced from successive compression-expansion π-A isotherm cycles. Comparison of surface thermodynamics under hysteresis with subphase pH variation confirms that the monolayer at subphase pH ≈ 4.0 involves a greater amount of energy to attain and retain the ordered and compact monolayer than the other two pH conditions (pH ≈ 7.0 and 9.5). In situ visualization of lysozyme monolayers by Brewster angle microscopy suggests the homogeneous and stripe-like pattern formation at lower and higher surface pressure respectively. Further investigations of lysozyme films at solid surfaces have been carried out with atomic force microscopy and X-ray reflectivity (XRR) analysis. Structural reversibility of lysozyme molecules under compression-expansion-compression of the monolayer is revealed from the comparison of height profiles of AFM images and electron density profiles as extracted from XRR analysis of the films deposited during both first and second compressions of the monolayer. The mechanism of the structural rearrangement of lysozyme molecules with surface pressure variation at different subphase pH is explored, correlating macroscopic and microscopic information.

Assembled structure and interfacial properties of oleosome-associated proteins from Camellia oleifera as natural surface-active agents

A very low content of oleosome-associated proteins (OAPs) allows for long-term stability of oleosomes in mature seeds, but there is limited knowledge on these interfacial behaviors. Here, the effect of extraction solvents on the composition, structure, and interfacial properties of OAPs from Camellia oleifera were investigated. After lipid removal by cold acetone/ether (AE) and chloroform/methanol (CM), the OAPs-AE exhibited a white lumpy morphology, but the OAPs-CM was a transparent film. The major components of OAPs-AE and OAPs-CM were similar, including oleosin, Ole Ⅰ, Ole Ⅱ, Ole Ⅳ, and Ole Ⅴ. The OAPs-CM had more α-helix (∼60%) and β-sheet (∼15%) structures than that of OAPs-AE, while the OAPs-AE had a higher denaturation temperature (∼90.9 °C). The residual phospholipid content in OAPs-AE was 21.5 times that of OAPs-CM. The OAPs-AE displayed an impressive ability to increase surface pressure at the air–water interface (∼32 mN/m at 4000 s) and oil–water interface (∼12 mN/m at 4000 s), even at a very low concentration (0.04 mg/mL). For the air–water interface, the diffusion rate of OAPs-AE was faster than that of OAPs-CM at all of the investigated pH values. These results provide a better understanding of OAPs as novel natural surface-active agents.

Enhanced throughput and clean laser drilling with a sacrificial polymer layer

Laser micromachining is the chosen method for vertical interconnect access point (VIA) formation in flex PCB layers. Even so, this method suffers from several inherent physical issues as a result of the intense localized heating causing strong Marangoni convection and the buildup of recast along the VIA upper crater walls while also scattered particle debris and oxidation of copper across the surface. The mitigation of the height and radius of this recast layer is critical for the following build-up process and device functionality and reliability. This is currently a major technology inhibitor to the adoption of flex PCBs for high-power electronics. In this study, we present experimental results showing the use of engineered sacrificial layers that coat the surface of the flex PCB substrate during the laser micromachining process. Optimization of this engineered sacrificial layer resulted in a major improvement in recast quality and debris control as well as reducing the oxide formation while increasing the laser drilling efficiency, attributable to increased surface pressure on the substrate. In this paper, we describe the methods and materials used in the development of sacrificial layers and show the positive impact it achieves on improving and modifying the plasma characteristics throughout the overall laser drilling process.

Aggregation behaviors of gradient and diblock copoly(2-oxazoline) monolayers at the air-water interface

This study reveals the different behavior of amphiphilic gradient and diblock copolymers based on aliphatic and aromatic 2-oxazolines. The copolymers were synthesized by the polymerization of hydrophilic 2-ethyl-2-oxazoline with hydrophobic 2-(4-octyloxyphenyl)-2-oxazoline. The aggregation behavior of gradient and diblock copolymers with different ratios between hydrophilic and hydrophobic units was explored. Surface pressure (Π)–surface area ( A ) isotherms were measured at the air-water interface. The gradient copolymers produced higher surface pressures and smaller limiting areas, while the diblock copolymers exhibit relatively flexible behaviors. Langmuir–Blodgett monolayers were transferred on the hydrophilic silicon wafer substrates at various surface pressure levels, and the nanostructure of the films was investigated by using atomic force microscopy and X-ray reflectivity measurements. It was observed that the morphologies of gradient and diblock copolymers were similar, indicating that the films form a uniform monolayer. The diblock copolymers produced relatively small changes in thickness upon the compression, compared to the changes in gradient copolymer monolayer films. The thickness of the gradient copolymers which have a high hydrophilic ratio at low surface pressure increases by increasing surface pressure and hydrophobic ratio. But the diblock copolymers do not change the thickness by increasing the surface pressure and hydrophobic ratio. The results indicate that the gradient copolymer monolayers have relatively rigid domains where hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts are smeared. On the other hand, the diblock copolymer has a flexible hydrophilic cushioning effect. This study provides insights into the development of novel materials based on hydrophilic-hydrophobic interactions. • The different behavior of amphiphilic gradient and diblock copolymers based on aliphatic and aromatic 2-oxazolines. • The aggregation behavior of gradient and diblock copolymers with different ratios between hydrophilic and hydrophobic units was explored. • The gradient copolymer monolayers have relatively rigid domains where hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts are smeared. • The diblock copolymer has a flexible hydrophilic cushioning effect.

Reducing foot plantar pressure using superelastic nitinol monofilaments as spacer yarns in a novel weft knitted spacer fabric insole

Insoles as devices for plantar pressure reduction have developed and undergone many clinical experiments to deliver better performance, helping patients with diabetic foot ulceration. Elastomer foams are used as the base material in commercial diabetic foot insoles. However, their energy absorption capacity degrades because of microclimate in footwear and their shape deform during usage. Therefore insoles with better-cushioning properties and durability are required. In this paper, a novel insole with 3D spacer fabric with superelastic nitinol monofilaments (NiTi) is introduced. The fabricated insole and commercial Plastazote insoles (PLT) are experimentally compared on five healthy persons with measuring plantar pressure right after wearing and 1 month after. The temperature increase is also measured after 15 min of walking. Statistical analysis is used to evaluate insoles performance. Although NiTi and PLT showed a reduction in peak plantar pressure (PPP) right after wearing, after one month, 48.5% and 43.8% reduction in mean PPP for NiTi and 28% and 23.9% for PLT were observed compared to without-insole condition on the right and left foot respectively. NiTi delivered 11.8% and 13.9% PPP increases on right and left foot compared to 61% and 61.8% respectively in PLT after 1 month. Lower temperature increase and homogenous plantar surface pressure distribution were also seen on NiTi. Eventually, the proposed NiTi insole delivered higher cushioning properties, enhanced breathability, more uniform pressure distribution, and superior endurance compared to PLT as a commercial insole. Therefore, it is a promising device for protecting the diabetic foot against pressure, impact and preventing ulceration.