Equilibrium Surface Temperature Research Articles

A comparative study between Monte Carlo entropic sampling method and local mean field investigations of thermal properties of spin-crossover nanoparticles based on Ising-like model

The thermally induced transitions between low-spin (LS) and high-spin (HS) configurations of spin-crossover (SCO) nanoparticles are simulated, focusing on the effects of localized surface and bulk interactions on the average magnetization of 2D square lattices. The thermal behaviors and hysteresis cycles are investigated within the framework of the Ising model Hamiltonian and are conducted following two approaches: local mean field approximation (LMFA) and Monte Carlo entropic sampling (MCES) techniques. The results obtained by these two methods are compared for the two square lattice sizes, 6 $$ \times $$ 6 and 7 $$ \times $$ 7. Thus, when the bulk-surface interaction term is set to zero, the two approaches lead to identical values of the surface and bulk transition temperatures separated by a long intermediate plateau in both cases. Although hysteresis curves exhibit a similar shape, LMFA shows slightly larger widths $$ \Delta T $$ than MCES. On increasing bulk-surface interaction term, the two methods lead to different shifts in equilibrium temperature values for both bulk and surface components, respectively, to lower and higher values by MCES. In general, it is found that LMFA shifts surface equilibrium temperature differently to lower values and enhances the hysteresis effect, particularly for surface molecules. On the other hand, for the 7 $$ \times $$ 7 square lattice, the equilibrium temperatures are slightly higher by 1.5% and 3.2% for bulk and surface molecules, respectively, with a narrower hysteresis width in the surface. Moreover, with the MCES method, an abrupt transition instead of a hysteresis transition is calculated for surface molecules ($$ \Delta T_{surf}^{MCES}=0 $$ K).

Prospects for Cryovolcanic Activity on Cold Ocean Planets

We have estimated total internal heating rates and depths to possible subsurface oceans for 17 planets that may be cold ocean planets, low-mass exoplanets with equilibrium surface temperatures and/or densities that are consistent with icy surfaces and a substantial H2O content. We have also investigated the potential for tidally driven cryovolcanism and exosphere formation on these worlds. Estimated internal heating rates from tidal and radiogenic sources are large enough that all planets in our study may harbor subsurface oceans, and their geological activity rates are likely to exceed the geological activity rates on Jupiter’s moon Europa. Several planets are likely to experience enhanced volcanic activity rates that exceed that of Io. Owing to their relatively thin ice shells and high rates of internal heating, Proxima Cen b and LHS 1140 b are the most favorable candidates for telescopic detection of explosive, tidally driven cryovolcanism. Estimates for thin ice shells on Proxima Cen b, LHS 1140 b, Trappist-1f, and several Kepler planets suggest that any H2O vented into space during explosive cryovolcanic eruptions on these worlds could be sourced directly from their subsurface oceans. Like the icy moons in our outer solar system, cold ocean planets may be astrobiologically significant worlds that harbor habitable environments beneath their icy surfaces. These possibilities should be considered during analyses of observational data for small exoplanets from current and upcoming telescopes and during planning for a future space telescope mission aimed at characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets (e.g., Habitable Worlds Observatory).

Assessment of the dynamic thermal behaviour of a test room using computer simulations and experimental measurements

People spend most of the time indoors and adequate comfort level in buildings is fundamental for their well-being and productivity. These issues can be investigated using both simulation models and experimental measurements in dedicated laboratories or in real buildings. The numerical and experimental approaches need to be combined in order to overcome the limitations of each one. This paper presents the application of a detailed numerical model to the CORE-CARE laboratory built at the University of Padua, a test room employed for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) evaluations. The HVAC plant consists of a mechanical ventilation unit and radiant systems for space heating and cooling. Each radiant surface presents different constructive characteristics and can operate independently. The test room is a novelty in this panorama, as it was integrated in an existing building, as a room for regular use. The impossibility of controlling external disturbances makes the dynamic modelling of the room extremely important, for the laboratory control and knowledge. For this reason, the test room behaviour in response to different HVAC system settings and external disturbances is analysed. Two experimental campaigns were carried out both in the heating and cooling seasons, activating one surface at a time, in order to both validate the model and set-up the transient thermal behaviour of the laboratory. In summer, three experimental set-ups were arranged: closed blinds, opened blinds and presence of a thermal dummy. The data analysis highlights that the North surface exhibits the fastest response in both seasons, whereas the floor is the slowest due to its inertia. In summer, the active surface equilibrium temperature is closer to the water supply temperature for responsive and massive surfaces, and it rises with incoming solar radiation and thermal dummy heat gain. The cooled floor enhances the space's thermal stratification. Simulation results show that the model reproduces the system's real dynamics, with a maximum RMSE of 2.3 and 1.9 °C for the North surface and air temperature.

Оценка критических границ компоновочных схем космических аппаратов по уровню теплового и эрозионного воздействий плазменных струй электроракетных двигателей

The paper proposes an engineering method to account for thermal and erosive effects of the electric rocket engine plasma jet on the spacecraft structural elements with the electric rocket engines installed on a spacecraft. The method is based on introducing the rejection boundaries that define the region of space, where installation of the spacecraft structural elements is unacceptable from the point of view of certain impact type. The rejection boundary is a surface, where the impact indicators are equal to the allowable value, inside the boundaries they exceed the allowable values (critical impact area), and outside the boundaries they stay below the allowable values (admissible impact area). If the spacecraft elements appear in the critical impact area, position of the electric rocket engines on the spacecraft should be corrected. Equilibrium surface temperature is the thermal effect indicator, which should not exceed the given allowable value; an erosion depth is the erosive effect indicator. Allowable level of erosive action depends on material and characteristics of the sprayed structural element. The considered indicators were determined by the ion current density at the given point in space for the worst case without accounting for the jet ions angle of incidence on the surface. Rejection boundaries were found for the plasma jet thermal and erosive effects of the SPT-100 stationary engine on various materials. It is shown that, incontrast to the traditionally used limitation on the jet divergence angle, the rejection boundary method makes it possible to significantly improve the accuracy of estimates and reduce the probability of errors in the layout of a modern spacecraft

Surface-Bulk 2D Spin-Crossover Nanoparticles within Ising-like Model Solved by Using Entropic Sampling Technique

We model the thermal effects in different 2D spin-crossover (SCO) square lattices within the frame of the Ising-like model using Monte Carlo entropic sampling (MCES) method to enhance the scan of macrostates beyond the most probable thermal ones. In fact, MCES allows access to the metastable states, and it is then well adapted to study thermal hysteresis properties. In this contribution, we distinguish, for the first time, the interaction between molecules located in bulk at the surface and those connecting the bulk and surface regions of an SCO lattice. In addition, an extra ligand field contribution is assigned to surface molecules through an interaction parameter L. In the absence of environmental effects on surface nanoparticles, a single thermal hysteresis loop increasing with the lattice size is simulated with a unique bulk and surface equilibrium temperature Teq=Teqbulk= Teqsurf. When environmental effects are accounted for, a two-step behavior associated with two hysteresis loops of widths ΔTS (for the surface) and ΔTB (for the bulk) with an intermediate plateau 14 K wide is obtained in the thermal dependence of the high-spin (HS) fraction for the 6 × 6 lattice. The surface and bulk equilibrium temperatures are then different, both decreasing towards lower values, and the L parameter controls the three states’ behavior as well as the hysteresis loop interval. Size effects show that the equilibrium temperature is governed by the surface atoms for a small lattice size (5 × 5) and by the bulk atoms for a large lattice size (7 × 7). Moreover, a change in the size of the lattice results in a variation of the order–disorder (or Curie) temperature, TO.D., and the surface equilibrium temperature, Teq, while only TO.D. changes in bulk.

CO2-laser-induced carbonization of calcium chloride-treated chitin nanopaper for applications in solar thermal heating.

Remarkable progress has been made in the development of carbonized chitin nanofiber materials for various functional applications, including solar thermal heating, owing to their N- and O-doped carbon structures and sustainable nature. Carbonization is a fascinating process for the functionalization of chitin nanofiber materials. However, conventional carbonization techniques require harmful reagents, high-temperature treatment, and time-consuming processes. Although CO2 laser irradiation has progressed as a facile and second-scale high-speed carbonization process, CO2-laser-carbonized chitin nanofiber materials and their applications have not yet been explored. Herein, we demonstrate the CO2-laser-induced carbonization of chitin nanofiber paper (denoted as chitin nanopaper) and investigate the solar thermal heating performance of the CO2-laser-carbonized chitin nanopaper. While the original chitin nanopaper was inevitably burned out by CO2 laser irradiation, CO2-laser-induced carbonization of the chitin nanopaper was achieved by pretreatment with calcium chloride as a combustion inhibitor. The CO2-laser-carbonized chitin nanopaper exhibits excellent solar thermal heating performance; its equilibrium surface temperature under 1 sun irradiation is 77.7 °C, which is higher than those of the commercial nanocarbon films and the conventionally carbonized bionanofiber papers. This study paves the way for the high-speed fabrication of carbonized chitin nanofiber materials and their application in solar thermal heating toward the effective utilization of solar energy as heat.

The Electric–Thermal Effect of a Carbon-Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composite and Its Corresponding Mechanical Properties

In this work, the electric-thermal effect of a carbon-fibre-reinforced epoxy composite (CFRE) panel was studied, as well as the influence of the electric heating treatment on the mechanical properties of the composite. It was observed that the temperature of the composite increased rapidly once the current was loaded, and the equilibrium surface temperature was reached within 2 min. The electric-thermal effect and mechanical properties depended on both the current loading time and the current intensity. At 5A, the flexural modulus and strength of the CFRE increased before decreasing with the current loading time. Under the same treatment time, the flexural strength of the samples treated with 5A was evidently larger than that under the small current, and all the treated samples displayed enhanced flexural strength compared to that of untreated samples. The results depicted that the low-current treatment and short time could improve the interfacial properties between CF/epoxy, along with enhancing the flexural properties of the samples. However, a large amount of the joule heating from the larger current and a more extensive time frame is predicted to cause irreversible defects to the composite, which consequently leads to the reduction in flexural strength of the composite. TGA results indicated decreased thermal stability of the CFRE composite panels after the electric heating treatment was applied.

Fast self-healing superhydrophobic sponge with all-weather heating and anti-fouling properties

The loss of superhydrophobicity due to mechanochemical damage is critical for superhydrophobic surfaces, and rapid self-healing is significant in maintaining surface durability. Herein, a novel, fast, self-healing superhydrophobic sponge capable of all-weather heating was polymerized in an eco-friendly aqueous system and dip-coated using fluorine-free and non-toxic reagents. Benefiting from the photothermal and Joule-heating performance of polyaniline (PANI) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), all-weather heating could be achieved. The equilibrium surface temperature (EST) of the as-prepared sponge could rapidly reach 105°C under irradiation of 1.0 kW/m2 for 20 s, and the EST exceeded 120°C with supplementary 18 V treatment. Impressively, after O2 plasma etching for 1 min or after being immersed in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution for 24 h, the water contact angle (WCA) of self-healing superhydrophobic polyurethane (PU) sponge (SHSPS) can be restored to 155°C under simulated sunlight for 2 min because of the rapid migration of low surface energy polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chains, which is the fastest recovery achieved to the best of our knowledge. In addition, the modified sponge exhibited a significant antifouling capability for particulate contaminants and organic pollutants, extending service life. Our preliminary results demonstrated that the modified sponge prepared in the current work is fully qualified in multiple applications, including oil-water separation, viscous oil treatment, seawater evaporation and desalination, de-icing, and anti-icing.

Superhydrophobic polyaniline absorbent for solar-assisted adsorption of highly viscous crude oil

• PDMS/PANI@MS demonstrates an excellent absorption capacity of 11.68 × 10 5 g/m 3 . • The photothermal sponge can quickly increase to 81.8 °C within 2 min under the sunlight. • PDMS/PANI@MS has a robust superhydrophobic coating and excellent recyclability. • The photothermal sponge are fabricated by a simple and cost-effective method. The effective removal and recovery of viscous crude oil continue to be an intractable concern, owing to the poor fluidity of viscous crude oil at normal temperature. When frequently used in oil remediation, traditional adsorption materials typically exhibit low absorption efficiency and easily destructible superhydrophobic surfaces. In this work, we constructed a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/polyaniline (PANI)-modified melamine sponge (MS) with a robust superhydrophobic coating by simple polymerization and dip coating. The unique PANI coating endows PDMS/PANI@MS with superior photothermal conversion efficiency and allows the surface equilibrium temperature to quickly rise to 81.8 °C within 2 min under the irradiation of 1 standard sunlight (1 kW/m 2 ). The efficient photothermal conversion allows the absorbent sponge to significantly reduce oil viscosity and facilitate absorption, thus demonstrating an absorption capacity of 11.68 × 10 5 g/m 3 , which is superior to those of absorbents reported previously. The excellent reusability conferred by the modified sponge, on the basis of the stable surface structure and good elasticity, demonstrates its potential for application in the remediation of viscous crude oil spills.

NiS2 Nanocubes Coated Ti3C2 Nanosheets with Enhanced Light‐to‐Heat Conversion for Fast and Efficient Solar Seawater Steam Generation

Recently, 2D materials have emerged in the field of light‐to‐heat conversion. However, it is urgent to find a simple and effective method to reduce the light reflectivity of the 2D surface to improve the light‐to‐heat conversion efficiency. A 2D nano‐self‐assembly material coating (NiS2@Ti3C2) realized by a simple hydrothermal method, which enables unique‐sized nano‐NiS2 crystals and 2D Ti3C2–MXenes to self‐assemble on a 3D scale, is innovatively proposed. Such a preparation method can construct a unique multilayer structure for multistage diffuse reflection of incident light, so that the MXene nanomaterial can achieve a light absorption rate of >90% in a wide spectral range. The composite is theoretically verified through optical simulation and first principles, and a higher light‐to‐heat conversion performance is achieved experimentally (61.7 °C surface equilibrium temperature, 1 sun). Compared with other similar materials, the assembled MXene seawater steam generator achieves a higher steam generation rate (1.27 kg m−2 h−1) and light‐to‐heat conversion efficiency (83.84%) under 1 sun. This material structure can maximize MXene active materials’ utilization and provide ideas for modifying other 2D photothermal materials.

A transiting rocky planet 8 parsecs away

Exoplanets Most exoplanets have been detected using either the radial velocity (RV) method or the transit method, which provide only limited information on the planet's physical properties. In the rare cases in which both methods detect the same planet, the combination determines the planet's mass, radius, and density. Trifonov et al. identified a planet, Gliese 486 b, using both RV and transit data. The host star is a red dwarf only 8 parsecs away, making this one of the closest exoplanet systems known. A rocky super-Earth, Gliese 486 b has an equilibrium surface temperature of 700 kelvin. The authors say that it is observationally favorable for searches for an atmosphere. Science , this issue p. [1038][1] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.abd7645

A nearby transiting rocky exoplanet that is suitable for atmospheric investigation.

Spectroscopy of transiting exoplanets can be used to investigate their atmospheric properties and habitability. Combining radial velocity (RV) and transit data provides additional information on exoplanet physical properties. We detect a transiting rocky planet with an orbital period of 1.467 days around the nearby red dwarf star Gliese 486. The planet Gliese 486 b is 2.81 Earth masses and 1.31 Earth radii, with uncertainties of 5%, as determined from RV data and photometric light curves. The host star is at a distance of ~8.1 parsecs, has a J-band magnitude of ~7.2, and is observable from both hemispheres of Earth. On the basis of these properties and the planet's short orbital period and high equilibrium temperature, we show that this terrestrial planet is suitable for emission and transit spectroscopy.

Equilibrium Temperatures and Directional Emissivity of Sunlit Airless Surfaces With Applications to the Moon

AbstractSolar irradiance dominates the heat flux incident on airless planetary bodies. In thermal equilibrium, surface roughness affects the temperature distribution by changing the incidence angle local to each slope. In order to simulate temperatures and thermal emissions at different phase angles, existing thermophysical models usually employ computationally expensive techniques such as ray tracing. Here we derive the equilibrium surface temperature distribution of sunlit Gaussian rough surfaces, providing an exact solution for the Sun at the zenith and an approximate solution for the general case. We find that although the slope distribution of realistic airless surfaces is often non‐Gaussian, their temperature distribution is well modeled assuming a Gaussian slope distribution. We additionally present closed‐form expressions that describe the radiation emitted from rough surfaces at different emissions angles and employ them to radiometrically estimate the roughness of the lunar surface using measurements obtained by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Diviner. Our model may also be applied to studying the roughness of resolved and unresolved surfaces on other airless planetary bodies.

Smart irrigation forecast using satellite LANDSAT data and meteo-hydrological modeling

The paper discusses advances in coupling satellite driven soil water balance model and meteorological forecast as support for precision smart irrigation use in a case study of an operative farm in the South of Italy where semi-arid climatic conditions holds. Crop water needs forecast are computed with the intuitive idea of forcing the soil water balance model with the meteorological model outlooks. Discussion on the methodology approach is presented, comparing, for a reanalysis period between June and September 2014, the forecast system outputs with observed soil moisture and crop water needs. Two main issues are here in emphasized: the characteristic of soil moisture water balance model, that due to its state variables may be directly calibrated and validated using satellite or near sensing land surface temperatures; the accuracy of those forecast meteorological variables that are the most important in driving the soil water and energy balance. The soil water balance model performances are then discussed highlighting the importance of using a model which state variable (the pixel surface equilibrium temperature) is the same as the data detected by satellite (Land Surface Temperature), so that it can be used for calibrating and validating soil hydrological parameters. Model outputs are also validated with a comparison of ground latent and sensible heat fluxes from an eddy covariance station and soil moisture data. Problems insight into the meteorological modeling, such as temporal and spatial scale, and their influence on soil moisture forecast are discussed showing on the base of several observation periods the need to increase the meteorological forcings accuracy for this type of applications.The obtained results show how the proposed methodology of the forecasting system is able to have a high reliability in soil moisture forecast correctly providing irrigation suggestion.

Lithosphere Thickness from New Heat-Flow Data of the Odra Variscan Area, S-W Poland

Equilibrium temperature data from shafts in a mining area of SW Poland in the Paleozoic Platform were used for heat-flow calculations. A new technique to calculate paleoclimatic correction for heat-flow determination from single deep temperature data and equilibrium surface temperatures was applied. Elevated surface heat flow of 82–87 mW m−2 and mantle heat flow of some 37–41 mW m−2 were found. This high heat-flow zone spreads from S-W Poland, in the Variscan deformation front, towards the German part of the Polish-German basin. Calculations of geotherms for a variety of heat production models of the crust and upper mantle point to lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary depths of about 80–90 km compared to seismologically determined depths of 90–120 km.

Evaluating Emergent Constraints on Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity

Emergent constraints are quantities that are observable from current measurements and have skill predicting future climate. This study explores 19 previously proposed emergent constraints related to equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS; the global-average equilibrium surface temperature response to CO2doubling). Several constraints are shown to be closely related, emphasizing the importance for careful understanding of proposed constraints. A new method is presented for decomposing correlation between an emergent constraint and ECS into terms related to physical processes and geographical regions. Using this decomposition, one can determine whether the processes and regions explaining correlation with ECS correspond to the physical explanation offered for the constraint. Shortwave cloud feedback is generally found to be the dominant contributor to correlations with ECS because it is the largest source of intermodel spread in ECS. In all cases, correlation results from interaction between a variety of terms, reflecting the complex nature of ECS and the fact that feedback terms and forcing are themselves correlated with each other. For 4 of the 19 constraints, the originally proposed explanation for correlation is borne out by our analysis. These four constraints all predict relatively high climate sensitivity. The credibility of six other constraints is called into question owing to correlation with ECS coming mainly from unexpected sources and/or lack of robustness to changes in ensembles. Another six constraints lack a testable explanation and hence cannot be confirmed. The fact that this study casts doubt upon more constraints than it confirms highlights the need for caution when identifying emergent constraints from small ensembles.

Habitability from Tidally Induced Tectonics

Abstract The stability of Earth’s climate on geological timescales is enabled by the carbon–silicate cycle that acts as a negative feedback mechanism stabilizing surface temperatures via the intake and outgassing of atmospheric carbon. On Earth, this thermostat is enabled by plate tectonics that sequesters outgassed CO2 back into the mantle via weathering and subduction at convergent margins. Here we propose a separate tectonic mechanism—vertical recycling—that can serve as the vehicle for CO2 outgassing and sequestration over long timescales. The mechanism requires continuous tidal heating, which makes it particularly relevant to planets in the habitable zone of M stars. Dynamical models of this vertical recycling scenario and stability analysis show that temperate climates stable over timescales of billions of years are realized for a variety of initial conditions, even as the M star dims over time. The magnitude of equilibrium surface temperatures depends on the interplay of sea weathering and outgassing, which in turn depends on planetary carbon content, so that planets with lower carbon budgets are favored for temperate conditions. The habitability of planets such as found in the Trappist-1 system may be rooted in tidally driven tectonics.

On the Emergent Constraints of Climate Sensitivity

Differences among climate models in equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS; the equilibrium surface temperature response to a doubling of atmospheric CO2) remain a significant barrier to the accurate assessment of societally important impacts of climate change. Relationships between ECS and observable metrics of the current climate in model ensembles, so-called emergent constraints, have been used to constrain ECS. Here a statistical method (including a backward selection process) is employed to achieve a better statistical understanding of the connections between four recently proposed emergent constraint metrics and individual feedbacks influencing ECS. The relationship between each metric and ECS is largely attributable to a statistical connection with shortwave low cloud feedback, the leading cause of intermodel ECS spread. This result bolsters confidence in some of the metrics, which had assumed such a connection in the first place. Additional analysis is conducted with a few thousand artificial metrics that are randomly generated but are well correlated with ECS. The relationships between the contrived metrics and ECS can also be linked statistically to shortwave cloud feedback. Thus, any proposed or forthcoming ECS constraint based on the current generation of climate models should be viewed as a potential constraint on shortwave cloud feedback, and physical links with that feedback should be investigated to verify that the constraint is real. In addition, any proposed ECS constraint should not be taken at face value since other factors influencing ECS besides shortwave cloud feedback could be systematically biased in the models.

Composite process and electrothermal properties of a new-type electric heating plywood made with melamine resin adhesive film

A new type of electric heating plywood used for indoor heating products was made using melamine resin adhesive film (MRAF) as the bonding material and carbon fiber paper (CFP) as the electric heating material. Hot-press pressure greatly affected the permeation of the adhesive into the CFP and bonding performance, resulting in a bonding strength above 1.8 MPa. The conducting path in the electric heating layer was the main factor affecting the drop rate of resistance (DRR). Pressure of around 1.3 MPa was beneficial in controlling power deviation. Use of the MRAF improved insulation and water resistance. The plywood exhibited a surface temperature difference of 6 °C under commonly used power. Temperature rise exhibited an exponential relationship with heating time, and surface equilibrium temperature had a linear relationship with power density. The plywood had good power stability because the maximum resistance changed by only 0.44% when electricity was overloaded for 24 h at a power density of 500 W/m2. Stable resistance was presented after power was cycled 40 times, and the maximum DRR was 1.25% after 120 power cycles. This scheme offers a simple process for large-scale manufacture of the adopted MRAF, which has good bonding performance and electric heating stability.

The Interaction of Relativistic Spacecrafts with the Interstellar Medium

Abstract The Breakthrough Starshot initiative aims to launch a gram-scale spacecraft to a speed of v ∼ 0.2c, capable of reaching the nearest star system, α Centauri, in about 20 years. However, a critical challenge for the initiative is the damage to the spacecraft by interstellar gas and dust during the journey. In this paper, we quantify the interaction of a relativistic spacecraft with gas and dust in the interstellar medium (ISM). For gas bombardment, we find that damage by track formation due to heavy elements is an important effect. We find that gas bombardment can potentially damage the surface of the spacecraft to a depth of ∼0.1 mm for quartz material after traversing a gas column of along the path to α Centauri, whereas the effect is much weaker for graphite material. The effect of dust bombardment erodes the spacecraft surface and produces numerous craters due to explosive evaporation of surface atoms. For a spacecraft speed , we find that dust bombardment can erode a surface layer of ∼0.5 mm thickness after the spacecraft has swept a column density of , assuming the standard gas-to-dust ratio of the ISM. Dust bombardment also damages the spacecraft surface by modifying the material structure through melting. We calculate the equilibrium surface temperature due to collisional heating by gas atoms as well as the temperature profile as a function of depth into the spacecraft. Our quantitative results suggest methods for damage control, and we highlight possibilities for shielding strategies and protection of the spacecraft.