Surface Denudation Rates Research Articles

Quantifying denudation rates and sediment recycling of low-relief, high-elevation landscapes using in-situ and meteoric cosmogenic nuclides

Quantifying Earth’s surface denudation rates is crucial for estimating sediment flux and its role in regulating global climate change. The inability of in-situ cosmogenic 10Bein to quantify denudation rates in quartz–free environment has prompted the need for a new proxy–the ratio of meteoric 10Bemet to mineral-weathered 9Be in reactive phase (precipitated in or adsorbed onto secondary minerals). This study utilized 10Bein–26Alin, 10Bemet/9Be, and major element analyses of reactive and mineral phases of bedload sediments to infer basin-wide denudation rates and sediment recycling (reworking of deeply buried sediments) in the Three River Source Region (TRSR) of the central Tibetan Plateau. Results from 10Bein-26Alin analysis of bedload sediments and bedrock samples (quartz grain, 250–500 μm) suggest that the sediments underwent burial events since at least 0.54 ± 0.16 million years ago. Combining paleoclimate records in the central Tibetan Plateau, we interpret the “Great Burial” as most likely the result of climate-controlled deglaciation and denudation at the termination of Naynayxungla glaciation during the MIS 13–15 period. This event marks the first widespread deglaciation on the Tibetan Plateau. The 10Bein-26Alin derived paleo–denudation rates range from 4.2-0.8+0.9 to 151-32+37 mm/kyr, consistent with previous 10Bein–derived modern denudation rates of 10–117 mm/kyr in TRSR. These rates show a moderate positive correlation with regional topography, particularly channel steepness, indicating a decrease in both relief and denudation rates from lower to upper streams. This spatial discrepancy is likely due to enhanced river headward incision and active neotectonic activities in the southeast. Denudation rates derived from the 10Bemet/9Be proxy range from 13 to 248 mm/kyr, alongside a chemical weathering intensity ranging from 43 % to 67 %. These denudation rates are strongly correlated with, but about 1.5 times higher than, the 10Bein–26Alin derived paleo–denudation rates from the same watershed. This suggests that the 10Bemet/9Be extracted from fine grains (<64 μm) may reflect a different sediment recycling pattern compared to 10Bein–26Alin in quartz sediments. Alternatively, the 10Bemet/9Be ratio could indicate a mixture of carbonate rock with a high denudation rate and silicate rock with a lower denudation rate, whereas 10Bein–26Alin reflects a single silicate denudation signal.

Tectonically dominant surface denudation and topography in the Himalaya: Evidence from coupling between bedrock channel and valley hillslope topographies

AbstractThe Himalaya, a leading example of active mountains, is jointly shaped by intense tectonics, extreme climate and surface denudation. However, the causal relationship among these agents remains controversial. In this work, by an integrated analysis of bedrock channels and valley hillslopes using process‐based models, we discover 3D‐linear correlations in logarithmic space among precipitation‐estimated stream discharge, channel gradients and valley hillslope gradients. This finding indicates that channel incision and hillslope denudation are dynamically coupled in sculpting the erosional topography in tectonically active domains of the Himalaya. The channel‐hillslope coupling provides an independent approach to quantify key parameters of erosional models. Surface denudation indices simulated along streams and in drainage basins present a regular arrangement of high‐ and low‐denudation zones across the Himalaya, which coincides well with available thermochronological and structural data and thereby supports a tectonic dominance on surface denudation rates and topography over medium‐long timescale.

Complex patterns of schist tor exposure and surface uplift, Otago (New Zealand)

Landscapes are subjected to surface denudation during their complex and non-linear evolution. In order to quantify the in situ surface lowering and, thus, denudation or soil erosion rates, new, multi-millennia archives are needed and must be rigorously tested. Large residual rocks, tors, are the basis for the Tor Exhumation Approach. Here we present novel results on meta-sedimentary (schist) rock tors using this approach, which previously has only been applied in granitic terrains. The exhumation patterns of eight schist tors in three landscape locations (valley, ridge, distal) of Otago, New Zealand, were studied using cosmogenic dating. The in situ 10Be ages have high variability along individual vertical tor profiles. Average surface age is 122 ± 12 ka and ranges from 836 ± 89 ka to 19 ± 2 ka. The majority of investigated tors have surfaced during the MIS 5 which was one of the wettest and warmest climate periods. The resulting surface denudation trend of the three locations differs. The valley commenced denudation no earlier than ~200 ka with rates of ~0.22 [m kyr−1] to ~0.02 [m kyr−1]. In contrast, exposure started at the ridge position around 230 ka at ~0.03 [m kyr−1]. An age inversion found in the valley is considered to be the result of mushroom-like exposure by undercutting and repeated rock breakoffs. The distal site tor has been exhumed continuously for ~120 ka at a rate of ~0.2 to ~0.05 [m kyr−1]. We identified a mix of surface emergence patterns of the tors such as continuous-, mushroom-, tafoni- and structural-like. The comparison to modern erosion rates indicates that surface erosion has increased up to a factor of ten during the last few decades. To determine the actual surface uplift, we linked the tor derived surface denudation rates with rock uplift data. The data indicates that the surface uplift rates started to decrease during the Middle Pleistocene (0.04–0.09 [m kyr−1]), remained relatively low during the Late Pleistocene (~0.01 [m kyr−1]) and started to increase again during the Holocene (c. 0.21–0.64 [m kyr−1]). In summary, the emergence pattern of local tors enabled reconstruction of the evolution of Pleistocene-Holocene surfaces in East Otago.

Integration of new and revised chronological data to constrain the terrace evolution of the Danube River (Gerecse Hills, Pannonian Basin)

Abstract Terrace ages deduced from diverse geochronological records yielded inconsistent data in the Danube valley in Hungary. The problem of discrepancies in the different chronological datasets has to be resolved before the Quaternary tectonic and climatic processes leading to valley incision and terrace formation may be properly evaluated. To establish a more robust chronology of the Danube valley in Hungary, new cosmogenic nuclide- (10Be depth profiles, 26Al/10Be burial durations and burial depth profile) and luminescence-based (pIRIR290) terrace ages were acquired and compared to revised paleontological and published U/Th and magnetostratigraphic data. All the applied geo-chronometers led to concordant terrace ages, with the exception of the U/Th method applied on travertine deposits covering terraces. U/Th ages predating the last interglacial manifest a bias towards younger ages, and so they were ignored in relation to the quantification of terrace ages. As a result, terrace ages from the Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene were settled. With regard to data from the Middle Pleistocene onwards, the combination of diverse methodologies led to a tighter bracketing of terrace ages than would be possible using a single dating method. The modelling of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be concentrations enabled to derive surface denudation rates and their combination with paleontological data also allowed us to decide between diverse landscape evolution scenarios.

Centennial- to millennial-scale hard rock erosion rates deduced from luminescence-depth profiles

The measurement of erosion and weathering rates in different geomorphic settings and over diverse temporal and spatial scales is fundamental to the quantification of rates and patterns of earth surface processes. A knowledge of the rates of these surface processes helps one to decipher their relative contribution to landscape evolution – information that is crucial to understanding the interaction between climate, tectonics and landscape. Consequently, a wide range of techniques has been developed to determine short- (<102 a) and long-term (>104 a) erosion rates. However, no method is available to quantify hard rock erosion rates at centennial to millennial timescales. Here we propose a novel technique, based on the solar bleaching of luminescence signals with depth into rock surfaces, to bridge this analytical gap. We apply our technique to glacial and landslide boulders in the Eastern Pamirs, China. The calculated erosion rates from the smooth varnished surfaces of 7 out of the 8 boulders sampled in this study vary between <0.038±0.002 and 1.72±0.04 mmka−1 (the eighth boulder gave an anomalously high erosion rate, possibly due to a recent chipping/cracking loss of surface). Given this preferential sampling of smooth surfaces, assumed to arise from grain-by-grain surface loss, we consider these rates as minimum estimates of rock surface denudation rates in the Eastern Pamirs, China.

Tectonic and climatic control on terrace formation: Coupling in situ produced 10Be depth profiles and luminescence approach, Danube River, Hungary, Central Europe

The terrace sequence of the Hungarian part of the Danube valley preserves a record of varying tectonic uplift rates along the river course and throughout several climate stages. To establish the chronology of formation of these terraces, two different dating methods were used on alluvial terraces: exposure age dating using in situ produced cosmogenic 10Be and luminescence dating. Using Monte Carlo approach to model the denudation rate-corrected exposure ages, in situ produced cosmogenic 10Be samples originated from vertical depth profiles enabled the determination of both the exposure time and the denudation rate. Post-IR IRSL measurements were carried out on K-feldspar samples to obtain the ages of sedimentation.The highest terrace horizon remnants of the study area provided a best estimate erosion-corrected minimum 10Be exposure age of >700 ka. We propose that the abandonment of the highest terrace of the Hungarian Danube valley was triggered by the combined effect of the beginning tectonic uplift and the onset of major continental glaciations of Quaternary age (around MIS 22). For the lower terraces it was possible to reveal close correlation with MIS stages using IRSL ages. The new chronology enabled the distinction of tIIb (∼90 ka; MIS 5b–c) and tIIIa (∼140 ka; MIS 6) in the study area. Surface denudation rates were well constrained by the cosmogenic 10Be depth profiles between 5.8 m/Ma and 10.0 m/Ma for all terraces. The calculated maximum incision rates of the Danube relevant for the above determined >700 ka time span were increasing from west (<0.06 mm/a) to east (<0.13 mm/a), toward the more elevated Transdanubian Range. Late Pleistocene incision rates derived from the age of the low terraces (∼0.13–0.15 mm/a) may suggest a slight acceleration of uplift towards present.

Local late Amazonian boulder breakdown and denudation rate on Mars

Inactive fan surfaces become smoother and develop desert pavement over time by weathering and erosion. We use this mechanism to estimate late Amazonian boulder breakdown and surface denudation rates on a young (∼1.25 Ma) (Schon et al., 2009) fan on Mars. This is done by comparing boulder size and surface relief between lobes of different ages. The boulder breakdown rate is 3.5 m/Myr, surface smoothing (denudation) rate is approximated as 0.89 m/Myr. These rates exceed previous estimates for the Amazonian by orders of magnitude. We attribute this to locality, high initial smoothing rates after morphological activity and obliquity and eccentricity‐driven variation in the availability of (metastable) liquid water, which acts as a catalyst for weathering during these periods. The results have major implications for process interpretation of Martian landforms, as they imply that typical small‐scale morphology may be subdued within &lt;1 Myr.

El Niño forcing on 10Be-based surface denudation rates in the northwestern Peruvian Andes?

High magnitude precipitation events provide large contributions to landscape formation and surface denudation in arid environments. Here, we quantify the precipitation-dependent geomorphic processes within the Rio Piura drainage basin located on the Western Escarpment of the northern Peruvian Andes at 5°S latitude. In this region, monsoonal easterly winds bring precipitation to the > 3000 m asl high headwaters, from where the annual amount of precipitation decreases downstream toward the Pacific coast. Denudation rates are highest in the knickzones near the headwaters, ~ 200–300 mm ky − 1 , and sediment discharge is limited by the transport capacity of the channel network. Every few years, this situation is perturbed by westerly, wind-driven heavy precipitation during El Niño events and results in supply-limited sediment discharge as indicated by bedrock channels. The detailed analysis of the stream-long profiles of two river basins within the Rio Piura catchment reveals a distinct knickzone in the transition zone between the easterly and westerly climatic influences, suggesting an En Niño forcing on the longitudinal channel profiles over at least Holocene timescales. Measured trunk stream catchment-wide denudation rates are up to ca. 300 mm ky − 1 and decrease successively downstream along the river profiles. Denudation rates of tributary rivers are ca. 200 mm ky − 1 near the plateau and show a stronger downstream decreasing trend than trunk stream rates. This suggests that the landscape is in a transient stage of local relief growth, which is driven by fluvial incision. This corroborates the results of paleoclimate studies that point towards higher El Nino frequencies during the past ca. 3000 years, leading to higher runoff and more erosion in the trunk channel compared to the hillslopes and thus growth of local relief. Downstream increases in channel gradient spatially coincide with the reaches of highest precipitation rates during El Niño events, we therefore interpret that Holocene landscape evolution has largely been controlled by climate. The ky-timescale of the 10Be data together with the transience of the landscape implies that El Niño events in northwestern Peru have occurred since at least the Holocene, and that adjustment to channel incision is still taking place.

Glacial retreat history of Nanhuta Shan (north-east Taiwan) from preserved glacial features: the cosmic ray exposure perspective.

Taiwan, located at the junction of the Pacific Ocean, the Eurasian continent, and the South China marginal Sea, is of particular interest for reconstructing paleoclimate periods in Eastern Asia. This study reports the first cosmic ray exposure dating (CRE) of glacial features in Taiwan. Among the areas where glacial relicts have been described in Taiwan, the Nanhuta Shan range is probably the place where glacial landforms are best preserved. We consequently focused on this area combining glacial geomorphology observations together with CRE dating using in situ produced 10Be of erratic boulders and ice-sculpted surfaces. When combined with the geomorphic characteristics of the sampled areas, the obtained minimum CRE ages suggest that the glacial retreat in the Nanhuta Shan commenced about 10±3 ka ago and retreat was complete by 7±1 ka ago. This is consistent with the Holocene warming trend deduced from other biological and physico-chemical paleoclimatic records for the region. Estimates of local bedrock surface denudation rates either directly from in situ produced 10Be measurements or from geomorphic considerations are employed to determine the preservation of such glacial features within the highly dynamic setting of Taiwan.

Relict non-glacial surfaces in formerly glaciated landscapes

Relict non-glacial surfaces occur within many formerly glaciated landscapes and contain important information on past surface processes and long-term landscape evolution. Relict non-glacial surfaces are distinguishable from glacial surfaces by large-scale morphologies, including rounded summits, fluvial valleys, and cryoplanation terraces and pediments, and the presence of tors, blockfields, and/or saprolites. Preservation during glaciation occurs either through coverage by non-erosive, cold-based, ice or as nunataks. Although surface morphologies and denudation rates indicate a continuous non-glacial surface history since preglacial times, relict non-glacial surfaces are dynamic features that have evolved during the Quaternary. Depending on spatial variables such as lithology, slope, regolith depth and the abundance of fine matrix and water some surfaces are denuding very slowly, while others display more rapid denudation. High spatial variability in denudation rates results in changing surface morphologies over time. Denudation rates also display high temporal variability, with much surface evolution having perhaps occurred soon after the initial onset of glaciation or during paraglacial phases. While some parts of non-glacial landscapes are currently active, others may be largely inactive relicts of past higher energy regimes. Although non-glacial surfaces are dynamic much remains to be determined regarding surface denudation rates and the magnitude of morphological changes over time.

Fault-related fold growth and isostatic subsidence, California Channel Islands

In the Northern Channel Islands of California, preservation of paleo-shoreline features both as uplifted landforms onshore and subsided depositional features offshore has allowed precise measurement of late Quaternary fold growth relative to sea level and has helped to disentangle the relative contributions of tectonic forcing and isostatic response. We precisely measured several hundred points on uplifted Pleistocene coastal terraces of Santa Cruz and Anacapa islands, the elevations of which document anticlinal growth of the islands since at least 400 ka. We also interpreted a dense grid of seismic-reflection profiles that image a complex of eustatic lowstand deltas that record regional subsidence surrounding the uplifting structure. We combined onshore uplift with offshore subsidence measurements to produce a quantitative mass balance of structural growth since 400 ka. The data outlined above were then used to test the hypothesis that subsidence around the Northern Channel Islands represents the flexural isostatic response to tectonic loading of the islands. Calculations of cumulative uplifted mass and cumulative subsided mass across the structure closely match the values predicted for density-driven isostatic compensation and local flexural support, although the wavelength of flexure predicted for the study area suggests that an additional component of flexural support may extend distally 10s of kilometers into the surrounding offshore basins. In the Northern Channel Islands, isostatic subsidence is explicitly manifested because erosional mass removal is small, because the crust here is relatively thin and weak, and most importantly because sea level provides an absolute datum against which to measure vertical deformation. An explicit treatment of the interplay between crustal thickening, erosional denudation, surface uplift, and isostatic response helps to illustrate the conditions under which isostatic subsidence may or may not be a significant process. Where surface denudation rates approach the rate of rock uplift, for example, isostatic subsidence will approach zero. In contrast, failure to recognize isostatic subsidence in earthquake-hazard studies can lead to order-of-magnitude errors in slip-rate and hazard estimates.

Retreat of the Caprock Escarpment and Denudation of the Rolling Plains in the Texas Panhandle

The feasibility of using Permian bedded salts in the Palo Duro Basin of the Texas Panhandle for nuclear waste disposal is in part dependent on maintaining the integrity of the repository throughout a geologically significant length of time, possibly as long as 250,000 years. Geologic processes such as, scarp retreat erosion, and denudation decrease the thickness of protective overburden above an underground repository. Bedded salts that may be suitable for a waste disposal site occur primarily beneath the Southern High Plains. Eastward of the High Plains salts beneath the Caprock Escarpment and the adjacent Rolling Plains are undergoing dissolution and are probably not suitable as disposal sites. The bedded salts beneath the Southern High Plains, where they are adjacent to the Caprock Escarpment, may eventually be affected by erosional processes as the Caprock Escarpment retreats westward and as the Rolling Plains are denuded. Regional rates of westward retreat of the escarpment were determined for time periods that range from 7,900 to 3,000,000 years and vary from 11 to 18 cm/yr (4.3 to 7.1 in./yr). Surface denudation rates are available for 19 drainage basins on the Rolling Plains and range from 0.50 to 2.97 mm/yr (0.02 to 0.118 in./yr). Under present land use and climatic conditions the erosion and denudation along the Caprock Escarpment and on the Rolling Plains are proceeding at near maximum rates.