Surface Acres Research Articles

Ecological Restoration Practices within a Semi-arid Natural Gas Field Improve Insect Abundance and Diversity during Early and Late Growing Season.

Insects are critical components of terrestrial ecosystems and are often considered ecosystem engineers. Due to the vast amount of ecosystem services they provide, because statistically valid samples can be captured in short durations, and because they respond rapidly to environmental change, insects have been used as indicators of restoration success and ecosystem functionality. In Wyoming (USA), ecological restoration required on thousands of acres of land surface have been disturbed to extract natural gas. In this study, we compared early seral reclamation sites to reference areas at two points within a growing season. We compared insect abundance and family richness on 6 natural gas well pads with early season perennial forbs and 6 well pads with the late season to insect communities on adjacent reference areas. A total of 237 individual insects were found on early season reclaimed sites compared to 84 on reference sites, while 858 insects were found on late season reclaimed sites compared to 38 on reference sites. Insect abundance was significantly higher on reclaimed well pads compared to reference areas at both points in the growing season, while reclaimed sites had significantly higher Shannon Diversity Index in early season and significantly higher family richness in late season compared to their paired reference sites. We also found interesting differences in abundance at family levels.

Mercury in Kansas Fish: Levels, Patterns, and Risk-Based Safe Consumption Limits for Mercury Sensitive Individuals

In wet environments a portion of ambient inorganic mercury (Hg) is transformed to methylmercury (MeHg); a neurotoxin that readily concentrates in fish. Public health entities monitor Hg levels in fish to inform consumers of the types and amounts of fish that are safe to eat. In this study, monitoring data collected from stream and lakes across Kansas were used to summarize fillet tissue total mercury (THg = MeHg + Hg) levels in 36 fish species and hybrids. Data associated with eleven food fish taxa (genus and species) were presented in detail and statewide risk-based monthly safe consumption limits (SCLs) protective of Hg sensitive individuals were calculated, including two size categories (< or ≥ 508 mm) for larger growing taxa. Linear mixed effects models (LMEMs) were used to generate least squares (LS) mean fish THg values for between habitat (lakes and streams) and within habitat (waterbody size, ecoregion, and major river basin) categorical variables, and for individual sample sites. Sample site LS means were used to identify potential fish THg hotspots among lakes (LS means ≥ 90th percentile) and streams (Getis-Ord Gi* statistic). Across all samples (n = 2,106) a more than 200-fold difference existed between the highest (2.1 mg/kg) and lowest THg (0.01 mg/kg) concentrations, but most samples were below the Kansas Department of Health and Environment's (KDHE) human health screening level (HSL) (0.23 mg/kg). Statewide safe consumption limits ranged from 1 meal/month in ≥ 508 mm flathead catfish to 8 meals/mo. in crappie spp. Least squares mean fish THg was significantly higher in streams than lakes, and significantly higher in small lakes (< 10 surface acres) than larger lakes. Stream size did not affect fish THg levels. In both lakes and streams, ecoregion and major river basin significantly affected fish THg levels with higher levels more prevalent in eastern geographic areas. Lakes identified as potential fish THg hotspots were widely distributed throughout the study area, but all stream hotspot sites were clustered in the southeast portion of the state.

Water-based recreation management: a normative approach to reviewing boating thresholds

Riungu GK, Hallo JC, Backman KF, Brownlee M, Beeco JA, Larson LR. 2020. Water-based recreation management: a normative approach to reviewing boating thresholds. Lake Reserv Manage. 36:139–154. Recreational boating is one of the major water-based recreation activities in the United States. Multiple public natural lakes and rivers are used for boating, but these waterways are a limited natural resource. The building of dams and their associated reservoirs have increased opportunities for boating, but even these areas at times remain quite crowded. In order to ensure that both resource and experiential capacities are not exceeded, density-related thresholds for boating, measured in surface acres of water per watercraft, need to be determined. Despite thresholds specifying the minimum acceptable conditions for boating, agencies managing waterways often apply thresholds that are not site-specific or evidence-based, and fail to solicit input from the public. Therefore, thresholds for boating capacity vary widely. Social norms have been widely applied in park and outdoor recreation management, and hence are likely to enhance the consistency, objectivity, and accuracy of estimation of boating capacity and the utilization of this capacity. This study applied normative approaches to estimate utilization of boating amenities and to update boating thresholds at 2 reservoirs in Washington State. Additionally, the study found visitors’ perceived level of crowding was a significant predictor of their perceptions of safety and security at both reservoirs. Therefore, there is a safety-related need for waterway managers to determine and implement crowding-based boating thresholds derived from visitor perceptions.

Fish Fry Lake: Perspectives from an Inventor on the Application of Created Floating Islands for Water Quality Renovation

Today Fish Fry Lake is a highly productive wild fishery, and also a long-term experiment tracking how the resource of nonpoint nutrient-loaded water can be optimally managed. The Fish Fry Lake story has relevance to water stewardship across much of the developed world where water quality is impacted by agricultural-based nutrient loading. Fish Fry Lake is located on the east side of Yellowstone County in south-central Montana. The lake covers 6.5 surface acres, is 28 feet deep at its deepest point, and contains about 55 acre-feet of water at full pool. Groundwater influenced by agriculture infiltrates to the lake and discharges at a typical rate of 65-85 gallons per minute. When the lake was converted from a seasonal pond to a perennial one in 2005, it displayed the typical attributes of a eutrophic waterway. The lake surface was occasionally completely covered with filamentous blue-green algae, with occasional patches of cyanobacteria.

Hydrogeological conditions and aquifers potentiality for sustainable development of the desert areas in Wadi Qena, Eastern Desert, Egypt

To increase the potentiality of development and land reclamation activities, the Egyptian government funds the construction of a new desert road in Upper Egypt. This road connects Upper Egypt with the Red Sea Governorate. Surrounding the road is 207,000 acres of land surface which is almost flat and suitable for reclamation. To ensure the sustainability of the proposed development surrounding the road, analyses of the morphometric parameters, infiltration test and the grain size distribution, geoelectrical and hydrogeological investigations were conducted in the area. The results indicated a possibility of flash flood hazards and poor drainage condition for land reclamation activities is expected. The hydrogeological and geoelectrical investigations revealed that the unconfined Quaternary and confined Nubian Sandstone aquifers are the main aquifers in the area. The depths to water in the two aquifers range from 18 to 36 and 80 to 300 m with an average thickness of 40 and 275 m, respectively. The aquifers are made of sands and silt with clay intercalations. The total dissolved solids of water ranges between 1,700 and 5,400 mg/L, whereas the sodium absorption ratio ranges between 7 and 30 meq/L, indicating the suitability of water for irrigating medium- to high-salt-tolerant crops with proper drainage facilities. Thus, water in this area is not suitable for domestic use. Based on hydrogeological equations, the available water for extraction from the aquifers in the area is about 17.195 × 109 m3, and this volume is not feasible to reclaim the whole proposed area for reclamation. Meanwhile, it may be possible to water small farms (not more than 60,000 acres for 50 years). Surface water source should be considered for the sustainability development of the area.

Hydrilla Management in Piedmont Reservoirs Using Herbicides and Triploid Grass Carp: A Case Study

AbstractWe developed a three‐step management strategy for hydrilla Hydrilla verticillata in five Piedmont reservoirs operated by Duke Energy Corporation. This strategy involves (1) early detection of hydrilla, (2) use of registered herbicides for plant suppression along with stocking 20 triploid Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella per surface acre of infestation, and (3) maintenance stocking of triploid Grass Carp to prevent hydrilla regrowth from tubers. Following this strategy, hydrilla in the water column was eliminated within one calendar year after Grass Carp introduction in four out of five reservoirs. This suggests that integrating herbicide applications with stocking Grass Carp largely eliminates the multiyear lag effect normally associated with using Grass Carp alone. A maintenance density of at least one triploid Grass Carp per eight surface acres of the reservoir prevented hydrilla regrowth except for a brief and minor reinfestation in one of five study reservoirs. This management approach proved successful when hydrilla coverage was as little as 1–3% of the reservoir's surface area. Detecting and controlling hydrilla early during the infestation should reduce the cost of management and perhaps minimize some adverse effects associated with the introduction and use of triploid Grass Carp.Received November 14, 2012; accepted January 15, 2013

An Interdisciplinary Approach for Watershed-Scale Assessment and Management

T he Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Dil- lon Field Of ce (DFO) manages more than 900,000 surface acres of public land in scenic, southwestern Montana. These lands vary from the snow-covered Lima Peaks, near the Idaho border, to the sagebrush-covered, rolling foothills near the rst Territorial capital of Bannack, Montana, to the grass-covered lowlands in the Madison Valley. Miles of high-mountain streams—in- habited by native, westslope cutthroat trout— ow down to the sagebrush-dominated grasslands that pygmy rabbits and sage-grouse call home. The sheer beauty and diversity of life within the DFO make managing these public lands for mul- tiple use a privilege and constant challenge. DOI: 10.2458/azu_rangelands_v34i4_martin

Use of Vaccination against Enteric Septicemia of Catfish and Columnaris Disease by the U.S. Catfish Industry

Vaccination is an effective strategy used for the protection of food animals against infectious diseases. A 2010 U.S. Department of Agriculture questionnaire examined U.S. catfish industry use (in 2009) of two commercial vaccines that provide protection against enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC) and columnaris disease, catfish producers' opinions regarding the percentage of vaccinated fish they expect to be protected, and producers' general expectations regarding survival of vaccinated fish compared with unvaccinated fish. During 2009, 9.7% of the total fingerling operations used one or both vaccines; 12.3% of the total industry fry production was vaccinated against ESC, and 17.0% was vaccinated against columnaris disease. Of the producers who grew food-sized catfish to harvest, 6.7% used vaccinated catfish. The farms that did not use vaccinated fish for grow out had a mean size of 63.4 water surface hectares (156.6 water surface acres). The operations that used vaccinated fish were larger (mean size = 206.6 water surface hectares, or 510.6 water surface acres). The producers that stocked ESC-vaccinated fish for grow out represented 19.0% of the total water surface area of food fish production; producers that stocked columnaris-vaccinated fish represented 16.6% of the total area. Of the producers that stocked ESC-vaccinated catfish, 41.9% thought that survival was better in vaccinated fish than in unvaccinated fish; of the producers that stocked columnaris-vaccinated catfish, 46.2% thought that vaccinated fish displayed better survival. However, 37.5% of producers that used the ESC vaccine and 39.7% of producers that used the columnaris vaccine did not know whether vaccination improved survival rates. When all producers were asked about their expectations regarding the percentage of vaccinated fish that would be protected from disease, 52.4% responded that they expected 100% of their fish to be protected. More producer information about reasonable expectations regarding vaccine efficacy, the conditions under which immunosuppression and vaccine failure can occur, and assessment of vaccine performance may result in increased use of vaccination as a tool for the catfish industry.

Effects of Triploid Grass Carp on Aquatic Plants, Water Quality, and Public Satisfaction in Washington State

We investigated effects of triploid grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella on aquatic macrophyte communities, water quality, and public satisfaction for 98 lakes and ponds in Washington State stocked with grass carp between 1990 and 1995. Grass carp had few noticeable effects on macrophyte communities until 19 months following stocking. After 19 months, submersed macrophytes were either completely eradicated (39% of the lakes) or not controlled (42% of the lakes) in most lakes. Intermediate control of submersed macrophytes occurred in 18% of lakes at a median stocking rate of 24 fish per vegetated surface acre. Most of the landowners interviewed (83%) were satisfied with the results of introducing grass carp. For sites where all submersed macrophytes were eradicated, average turbidity was higher (11 nephelometric turbidity units, NTU) than at sites where macrophytes were controlled to intermediate levels (4 NTU) or unaffected by grass carp grazing (5 NTU). Chlorophyll a was not significantly different between levels of macrophyte control; therefore, we concluded that most of this turbidity was abiotic and not algal. Triploid grass carp were a popular control option and effectively grazed most submersed macrophytes in Washington State. However, calculating stocking rates based on landowner estimates of aquatic plant coverage rarely resulted in intermediate levels of aquatic plant control. Additionally, the effects of particular stocking rates varied considerably. We recommend against using grass carp in Washington lakes where eradication of submersed vegetation cannot be tolerated.

Consequences of an Exceptional Ice-Fishing Season on White Bass in Cheney and Glen Elder Reservoirs, Kansas

In Kansas, media attention to ice-fishing has generated a perception among nonice-fishing anglers of excessive harvests that might result in declines in population quality among white bass (Morone chrysops) populations in reservoirs. To address these concerns, creel surveys were conducted throughout ice cover at Cheney and Glen Elder reservoirs in 1985, and standard fall gill net samples collected before and after the ice-fishing season were used to measure the effect of ice-fishing on these white bass populations. The 1985 ice-fishing season was exceptional in terms of white bass catch rates and size structure. Ice anglers were selective, harvesting the largest individuals; 58% of creeled white bass were ?380 mm. White bass catchper-unit effort in standard fall gill net samples were significantly greater in 1985, but statistical power was too low to assess differences between many of the length categories. The standard sampling effort of nine net-complement-night sets for Kansas reservoirs larger than 9,000 surface acres is likely inadequate to determine population changes in highly mobile species such as white bass. Recommendations are included to better assess the effects of ice-fishing on white bass populations in Kansas reservoirs.

High Intensity, Short Duration Rotational Grazing on Reclaimed Cool Season Fescue/ Legume Pastures: I. System Development

The Pittsburg & Midway Coal Mining Co.`s ({open_quotes}P&M{close_quotes}) Midway Mine lies 50 miles south of Kansas City, Kansas, straddling the border of Kansas and Missouri. P&M actively mined the area until 1989, when the mine was closed and reclaimed. Approximately 3,750 acres of surface mined land were topsoiled and revegetated to cool season fescue/legume pasture. Various pasture management methods are being utilized to meet reclamation success standards and achieve final bond release. The effectiveness and costs of various cool season fescue/legume pasture management methods are evaluated and contrasted. These methods include sharecropping, bush hogging, burning and livestock grazing. It presents guidelines used to develop a site specific rotational livestock grazing programs with land owners or contractors, and local, state and federal agencies. Rotational grazing uses both cow/calf or feeder livestock operations. Key managerial elements used to control grazing activities, either by the landowner or a contractor, are reviewed. Methods used to determine stocking levels for successful rotational grazing on this type of pasture are presented. Rotational grazing of livestock has proven to be the most effective method for managing established cool season fescue/legume pastures at this site. Initial stocking rates of 1 A.U.M. per 5 acres have been modified tomore » a current stocking rate of 1 A.U.M. per 2.5 acres. Supporting physical and chemical data are presented and discussed.« less

NSWCDDWODET underwater acoustic measurements facility

The Naval Surface Warfare Center, Dahlgren Division, White Oak Detachment has an underwater acoustic measurements facility consisting of two sites, the White Oak site and Brighton Dam site. The White Oak site consists of a redwood tank which is 30 ft in diameter and 20 ft deep inclosed in a building. The tank is below grade and mechanically isolated from all structures and machinery. The water is constantly filtered and circulated to provide mixing at constant temperature of 72 °F. The Brighton Dam site is located on Brighton Dam Road, 14 mi north of the NSWC White Oak laboratory. The test barge is anchored and moored 200 ft offshore in approximately 55 ft of water on Triadelphia Reservoir about 1200 ft from Brighton Dam. The reservoir, impounded by Brighton Dam, forms a lake of 800 surface acres containing approximately 7 billion gallons of water. A full range of acoustic measurements are possible at ambient temperature and pressure.

Fish Aid — The Lake Mead Fertilization Project

ABSTRACT Sport fishing at Lake Mead in Nevada and Arizona is a resource valued at nearly $100 million per year to southern Nevada. During the past two decades, salmonids, mostly trout, have disappeared entirely, the largemouth bass catch has drastically declined despite greater fishing pressure, and the condition factors for striped bass have steadily deteriorated. It appears that a major reduction in phosphorus loading caused by the upstream impoundment of the Colorado River to form Lake Powell in 1963 and advanced wastewater treatment removal of phosphorus from domestic wastewater inflows in 1981 are the principal factors responsible for decreased production at all levels of the food chain. The Lake Mead Fertilization Project is an attempt to reverse these declining fisheries. The first large-scale test of fertilization occurred on May 30, 1987. More than 300 boats and 1,000 volunteers helped spread 20,000 gallons (75.7 m3) of liquid ammonium polyphosphate over 19,000 acres (7700 ha) of lake surface. Hi...

Aquatic Macroinvertebrates and Fishes of Big Creek in Trego, Ellis, and Russell Counties, Kansas

Seven taxa of aquatic invertebrates and 27 species of fish are reported from a biological survey of Big Creek in Trego, Ellis, and Russell counties, Kansas conducted during 1983 and 1984. The present fauna is compared to previous faunal surveys. A biological survey of Big Creek was conducted in Trego, Ellis, and Russell counties, Kansas during 1983 and 1984. The objective of the study was to determine the species of fish and selected taxa of aquatic invertebrates that inhabit the stream and to compare this information with previous accounts published since 1870. The channel of Big Creek originates in northwestern Gove County and courses to the southeast through Trego, Ellis, and southwestern Russell counties where it joins the Smoky Hill River. The portion of the channel that normally has flowing water in the spring extends from central Trego County through Ellis County to the confluence with the Smoky Hill River. Big Creek is an intermittent stream, and during the summer, fall, and early winter, the stream often is composed of isolated pools throughout most of its length. The bottom substrate is sand, silt, or gravel. The pH varies from 7.0 to 8.5 and specific conductance usually is between 280 and 2150 micromhos per centimeter at 25 degrees C (U.S. Geological Survey, 1964-1975, 1970-1983; Kansas Fish and Game Comm., 1979). A relatively large dam at Ellis in western Ellis County impounds approximately 100 surface acres of water when the pool is full and provides a unique habitat on the stream for some species of fish and other aquatic organisms that would otherwise be absent from Big Creek. Smaller dams and low-water bridges have been built in the area from Hays, in central Ellis County, to southwestern Russell County. These structures create pools of water in the summer and fall which enable fish and other organisms to survive in the creek as water levels decline, but the dams also have the This content downloaded from 157.55.39.231 on Wed, 05 Oct 2016 04:30:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms VOLUME 89, NUMBERS 3-4 147 Table 1. Species of macroinvertebrates from Big Creek previously reported and collected during the 1983-1984 survey. Previous reports 1983-1984 survey

Increased Gas Recovery From a Moderate Water Drive Reservoir

Summary Accelerated gas withdrawals from a U.S. gulf coast water-drive gas reservoir resulted in a 20% increase in remaining gas recovery vs. continued low-rate depletion. Pressures measured in water-invaded areas showed significant reduction and indicated gas percolation from these areas to the producing wells. Introduction The Lovells Lake Frio 1 reservoir contained approximately 175 Bscf (5 × 109 std m3) of gas and 18 MMSTB (2.9 × 106 stock-tank m3) of oil upon discovery in 1938. This reservoir is generally a low-dip anticlinal structure with a natural moderate water drive as the primary depletion mechanism. The natural water influx maintained reservoir pressure at about 80% of the original pressure through 1976.Oil production operations continued at a very high water percentage, and gas cap cycling had been completed successfully in 1976. Both "tank-type" and three-dimensional simulations of the reservoir were performed to determine the optimum final gas-cap gas depletion program. These simulations indicated the potential for additional gas recovery through the reduction of reservoir abandonment pressure, with a highly accelerated gas production schedule.On Nov. 2, 1977, gas cap withdrawals were increased to 115 MMcf/D (3.3 × 103 m3/d) and averaged 84 MMcf/D (2.4 × 106 m3/d) during the next 12 months. Reservoir pressure declined by as much as 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) in the center portions of the reservoir within 10 months. Blowdown at a reserves/production ratio (R/P) of 0.9 years provided an increase in gas recovery of some 21 Bcf (595 × 106 m3) or about 20% over blowdown at an R/P of 9 years. Gas-cap gas recovery from the water-invaded areas was increased from a historical 58% before blowdown to 70% upon final depletion of the gas cap. This was due to a reduction of the gas trapping pressure and percolation of previously trapped gas to the producing wells. Reservoir Description The Lovells Lake field is 14 miles south of Beaumont on the upper Texas gulf coast. The field was discovered in 1938 and was developed on 20-acre (80 × 103-m2) spacing with some 250 wells. The basic structure for the Lovells Lake reservoirs is a deep-seated, elliptical dome lying to the southeast of a northeast-southwest trending fault. The principal producing formations are the Anahuac and Frio sands.Of the productive reservoirs included at Lovells Lake, the Frio 1 is the largest, covering approximately 3,600 surface acres (14.5 km2). The Frio 1 Sand is encountered at an average depth of 7,650 ft (2332 m). It is treated as one reservoir for regulatory purposes and has been subdivided into two zones for the purpose of this study. These designations are shown on the type electric log in Fig. 1. The Frio stringer is a shaly discontinuous sand that is primarily gas productive. This sand had exhibited pressure depletion behavior and was not included in this study.The main Frio 1 is continuous over the entire field, is not faulted, and varies in thickness from 60 to 80 ft (18 to 24 m). Upon discovery, reservoir fluids consisted of a large gas cap and a thin oil rim as indicated by the original 6:1 ratio of gas cap to oil zone volume. The initial thickness of the oil zone averaged 9.5 ft (2.9 m), while the gas zone thickness averaged 30 ft (9.1 m). The reservoir was underlain by a water-bearing sand throughout most of the productive area.The regional aquifer for the Frio 1 is rectangular and bounded by faults on three of four sides. JPT P. 2475^

Successful Stimulation of Fordoche Field With a Retarded HF Acid

Summary A sequential hydrofluoric acid (SHF) system yielded large-scale success in the Fordoche field in south Louisiana. The SHF was successful on 19 of 22 wells treated in various reservoirs, with an average 2.5-fold production increase. Fordoche reservoir characteristics, substantial production data on the SHF and other stimulation attempts, and some mechanical considerations that required careful engineering planning are presented. Introduction A retarded clay-dissolving system was developed for stimulating oil and gas production from deep clay-damaged sandstone formations. The SHF system uses the ion-exchange properties of clay minerals to generate in-situ hydrofluoric acid (HF) on the clay mineral by pumping alternate stages of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonium fluoride into the formation.Fordoche field has been on production since 1966. Cumulative oil production through Dec. 1979 is more than 25 million bbl. The production is from deep, high-pressure, low permeability, multilayered sandstone formations. Initially, production was high (12,000 BOPD), but it rapidly declined as a result of declining bottomhole pressure (BHP) and formation damage. A gas injection program was begun in 1971 to stabilize the BHP's. To counter the formation damage, several stimulation treatments were attempted, including regular HF, HCl, sand fracture, solvent, isopropyl acetate, and acetic anhydride. These treatments were either temporarily successful or unsuccessful. In addition, frequent mechanical problems required expensive well repairs. Stimulation treatments with SHF began at Fordoche in 1977, and of 22 producing wells treated, 19 were successful. Average increase in production for the 22 wells was 2.5-fold, with a payout of 11 days. Reservoir Characteristics The Fordoche field is located in Pointe Coupee Parish, LA (Fig. 1). Initial production began in Jan. 1966. The field was developed with 55 oil completions and seven gas completions in 36 wellbores drilled to an average depth of 14,200 ft. The 3,520 surface acres contain seven pay zones in the Sparta and Wilcox Eocene formations. Fig. 2 is a typical well log showing these sands. Successful SHF stimulation was performed on both the Sparta and Wilcox formations. Basic reservoir data for the Sparta B and Wilcox 8 (W-8) sands (Table 1) indicate major differences between the two reservoirs.The Wilcox sands consist of two gas-condensate reservoirs (W-4 and W-5) and three oil reservoirs (W-8, W-12, and W-15). The five intervals are similar reservoir properties. They all are of deltaic origin and vary from slightly shaly and fine grained to silty, consolidated sandstone and contain various amounts of clay. The mineralogy of core material from the W-8 sand is shown in Table 2. Laboratory core studies indicate a high solubility of the W-8 formation with HF (Table 2).The Wilcox sands exhibit high original BHP's (9,400 to 11,000 psia) and temperatures (250 to 280 degrees F). Studies indicated that these reservoirs are very sensitive to water; oil production rates have decreased drastically when wells produced more than 2 % water. The wells' tendency to plug limits production and necessitates frequent stimulation to restore wells to commercial production. JPT P. 1485^

Evolution of Alberta''s Petroleum And Natural Gas Land Regulations

Introduction Mineral Owership Section 109 of the British North America Act gives jurisdiction over natural resources to the provinces, and consequently we have as many sets of regulations providing for administration of the mineral resources as we have provinces. In addition to provincial regulations, there are regulations for minerals owned and controlled by the federal government in the northern territories and offshore areas and the minerals owned by the Treaty Indians under lands south of 60° parallel N. Freehold Minerals Not all minerals in Canada are owned by governments, and a summary of the rights generally referred to as freehold minerals follows. Hudson"s Bay Lands In 1670, Charles II granted to the Hudson"s Bay Company all the lands draining into Hudson"s Bay. This grant amounted to some one and a half million square miles westerly from Hudson"s Bay in much of what is now Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories to the Rocky Mountains. Following federation in 1867, the new government of Canada undertook to acquire the territory granted to the Hudson"s Bay Company. In 1869, an agreement was signed pursuant to which the Hudson"s Bay Company surrendered all of its lands to Canada in consideration of:A payment of 300 thousand pounds sterling;The company retaining both surface and mineral rights at the company"s different trading posts and settlements, totaling about 45,000 acres;A grant of one-twentieth of the land (both surface and minerals) in what was referred to as the "Fertile Belt", an area described in the agreement as being bounded on the south by the United States, on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the east by Lake Winnipeg, Lake of the Woods and the waters connecting them, and on the north by the North Saskatchewan River. These Hudson"s Bay lands are generally section 8 and 3/4 of section 26 in each township. As a result of this agreement, the people of Canada in 1869 owned 95 per cent of the surface and minerals in the "Fertile Belt" and the surface and minerals in the balance of the area. Railroad Lands To effect settlement of the West as quickly as possible and to provide a land link to the colony of British Columbia, land and minerals were granted to the railroad building companies. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company received a large area (including surface and minerals) along the right-of-way of its railway. Similar grants were made to smaller railways, some of which were subsequently taken over by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. In the four western provinces, approximately 3,500 miles of railway were constructed and some thirty million acres of both surface and minerals transferred to the different companies as subsidies. Homestead Lands Settlers acquiring homesteads obtained the minerals with the surface until October 31, 1887. After that date, the federal government excepted minerals when making land grants. All mines and minerals thereafter were reserved to the government when land was disposed of for some surface-related purpose.

Reservoir Simulation of the Empire Abo Field: The Use of Pseudos in a Multilayered System

Abstract A three-layered model with vertical equlibrium pseudo-relative permeabilities and pseudo-capillary pseudo-relative permeabilities and pseudo-capillary pressures was used to match the results from a pressures was used to match the results from a 22-layered model of a portion of the Empire Abo field. Results of the two models were almost identical in both history match and prediction phases. Directionally dependent pseudo-relative permeabilities were introduced to match the drainage mechanism of the reservoir. Both horizontal displacement and drainage mechanisms can be modeled simultaneously in a multilayered system using these pseudo functions.The excellent comparison between the finely gridded model and the pseudo model allowed the simulation of alternative recovery schemes using the pseudo model with the same confidence as the pseudo model with the same confidence as the original three-dimensional model. In particular, a comparison between pressure maintenance with carbon dioxide and nitrogen was simulated, with a substantial savings in both manpower and computer time. Development of this pseudo model makes the simulation of the entire Empire Abo field feasible. Introduction For several years vertical equilibrium pseudo-relative permeabilities and pseudo-capillary pressures have permeabilities and pseudo-capillary pressures have been used throughout the industry to collapse a three-dimensional model with many layers to a two-dimensional areal model with a single layer. The obvious advantages of pseudo models are reduced computer and manpower costs. The justification for the use of pseudo models has been the comparison of results from one-dimensional models using pseudos with those from two-dimensional, cross-sectional models. Few comparisons have been made between an areal model using pseudos and a three-dimensional simulation.The Empire Abo field offered an excellent example for such a comparison. The field had been simulated in three dimensions, using 22 layers. An analysis of the simulation results showed that conditions were such that vertical equilibrium existed in most columns of the model. By applying pseudos to the three-dimensional model, it appeared possible to reduce the number of layers and associated computer time substantially.In this paper, the techniques for obtaining a match of the three-dimensional models with a pseudo model are described. The original three-dimensional model is described along with a history of the Empire Abo field. Coning correlations and directionally dependent pseudo-relative permeabilities also are described. Results between the pseudo model and the three-dimensional model also are compared. Finally, the use of the pseudo model for predicting alternative recovery schemes is discussed. Field History The Empire Abo field is located in southeastern New Mexico, about 8 miles (13 km) southeast of Artesia, NM (Fig. 1). The Abo reservoir was discovered by Amoco Production Co. in Nov. 1957. Subsequent development and unitization of the Abo reservoir was documented by Christianson. The producing horizon is a carbonate reef, basal Permian (lower Leonard) in age. The productive reef is about 12 1/2 miles (20.12 km) long and 1 1/2 miles (2.47 km) wide (Fig. 2), covering about 11,339 surface acres (45.9 x 10(6) m2). The reef dips gently from southwest to northeast at about 1 degree. JPT p. 279

Low-Tension Waterflood Pilot at the Salem Unit, Marion County, Illinois Part 1: Field Implementation and Results

A tertiary recovery pilot of a low-tension waterflood process was conducted in the Salem Unit. A 5-acre, five-spot pilot was installed inside a previously waterflooded 20-acre, five-spot pattern in the Benoist reservoir previously waterflooded 20-acre, five-spot pattern in the Benoist reservoir to provide afield test of a chemical flooding process found successful in laboratory experiments. Introduction A tertiary chemical process for recovery of oil remaining after conventional waterflooding has been pilot tested in the Benoist sand reservoir of the Salem field, Marion County, Ill. The pilot was applied in a 5-acre five-spot pattern that consisted of four injection wells, two pattern that consisted of four injection wells, two observation wells with bottom-hole locations 67 and 164 ft from one of the injectors, and a center producer. This was a joint Texaco Inc./Mobil Oil Corp. test, slice the low-tension waterflood process is under license from Mobil, which is a co-owner in the Salem Unit. Four separate injection phases comprised the process: process: Phase 1. A 0.5-PV, three-part, aqueous reservoirconditioning slug consisting of (1) 0.2 PV of softened fresh water to initiate displacement of formation brine, (2) 0.1 PV of fresh water containing 6,000 ppm sodium carbonate to reduce, through precipitation, undisplaced divalent ions, and (3) 0.2 PV of fresh water containing 6,000 ppm sodium carbonate, 1,000 ppm sodium tripolyphosphate to reduce further the divalent ion concentration, and 6,000 ppm salt (NaCl) to maintain the desired level of salt concentration for optimum surfactant reaction. Phase 2. A 0.285-PV surfactant slug composed of 20,000 ppm of petroleum sulfonate mixed in softened fresh water containing 6,000 ppm each of sodium carbonate and sodium chloride and 1,000 ppm of sodium tripolyphosphate. Phase 3. A 0.3-PV, two-part polymer drive slug:0.1 PV of 700 ppm biopolymer hydrated in salinity-adjusted, fresh and softened water, and0.2 PV of biopolymer-thickened water, as above, with polymer concentration reduced gradually from 700 to 0 ppm. Phase 4. 1.0 PV of Salem field injection brine to provide the final drive. provide the final drive. The desired injection rates into all chemical injectors were maintained over the life of the pilot test, with the exception of a 40-day period of reduced injection during the surfactant phase caused by an interruption in sulfonate supply. However, all chemical injectors were treated selectively twice to improve vertical distribution of injected fluids. It was also necessary to acidize the center producer, Well 5-2, on two occasions to maintain total producer, Well 5-2, on two occasions to maintain total fluid withdrawal. Location The Lake Centralia-Salem pool is located between the cities of Salem and Centralia in Marion County, Ill., about 70 miles east of St. Louis (Fig. 1). The field contains 8,800 surface acres and is 6 1/2 miles long and 2 1/2 miles wide. The field was discovered in 1938 by Texaco Inc. and 2,400 wells have been drilled. Eight horizons have produced under primary conditions and four have been subjected to full-scale waterflooding operations. The field was unitized for waterflooding on Sept. 1, 1950, with Texaco as unit operator (Fig. 2). Geology JPT P. 925

The Ten-Pattern Steamflood, Kern River Field, California

The steamflood project at Kern River field consists of 10 inverted seven-spot injection patterns, with 32 producing wells covering 61 acres. Steam injection is confined to a 70-ft sand. Extensive data analyses confirm that steamflooding is a most efficient displacement mechanism, with a volumetric sweep of more than 60 percent. Introduction The 10-pattern steamflood field trial was initiated in the Kern River field, Calif., in Sept. 1968. This field was selected for a commercial test after the technical success of the steamflood process was confirmed by the Inglewood field test. The Kern River field properties of high oil viscosity, low reservoir pressure, shallow depth, and high oil saturation are all favorable for thermal recovery techniques. Chevron Oil Field Research Co. and Standard Oil Co. of California, Western Operations Inc., designed and operated the test to measure vertical and areal coverages, displacement efficiencies, and residual oil saturations with data from several temperature observation wells and core holes. This paper contains a description of the reservoir, the project facilities, and the performance to Oct. 1, 1973. project facilities, and the performance to Oct. 1, 1973. The project is analyzed in detail and the performance is compared with theory. Results of a new steamflood prediction method are also included. prediction method are also included. Project Description Project Description Field Area and Background The 10-pattern steamflood is being conducted in Section 3 of the Kern River field, near Bakersfield, Calif. The field was discovered in 1899 and was largely developed by 1915. The reservoir is 300 to 500 ft thick and is first encountered in Section 3 from 200 to 300 ft below the surface. The Kern River Sand Series productive limits are defined by the downdip China Grade productive limits are defined by the downdip China Grade Loop fault and by updip outcropping. The dip in Section 3 averages 3 degrees, and strike is on a northwest-southeast trend. The Kern River Sand Series consists of at least six sand bodies separated vertically by 6- to 20-ft-thick siltstone or clay intervals. A typical IES log of the Kern River Sand Series is shown in Fig. 1. The subject field trial is being conducted in the bottom sand interval, from 705 to 765 ft on the log. Upper sands will be processed successively from bottom to top. The productive intervals are friable and unconsolidated; the rock ranges from fine to coarse grain, poorly sorted sandstone, to conglomerate with pebbles from 1/4 to +5 in. in diameter. pebbles from 1/4 to +5 in. in diameter. The reservoir data, based on wells cored at the start of the project in 1968, are shown in Table 1. The average properties for the steamflood interval are 7,600 md properties for the steamflood interval are 7,600 md permeability 35 percent porosity, and an oil saturation permeability 35 percent porosity, and an oil saturation before steamflooding of 52 percent, equivalent to an oil content of 1,437 bbl/acre-ft. The steamflood project area is shown in Fig. 2. The project consists of 10 inverted seven-spot injection patterns covering 61 surface acres. The two central patterns are confined or backed up by the outside ring of injection wells and are the two key patterns for project analysis. The 6-acre patterns provided the project analysis. The 6-acre patterns provided the opportunity to evaluate the effects of patterns larger than the 2.5-acre Inglewood test. JPT P. 1505