Suppression Of Unwanted Thoughts Research Articles

Acceptance and Commitment Training Focused on Psychological Flexibility for Family Members of Children with Intellectual Disabilities.

The objective of the study was to analyse the effect of a psychological flexibility intervention programme based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) on 36 family members of children with intellectual disabilities. The 6-PAQ (parental psychological flexibility), PSS-14 (perceived stress), GHQ-12 (psychological health), and WBSI (suppression of unwanted thoughts) were used as measurement instruments before the programme (pre), after (post), and at follow-up (after two months). Possible change in family interactions due to the family intervention was also assessed through self-monitoring. A decrease in psychological inflexibility, a reduction in stress, an improvement in psychological well-being, and a reduction in the tendency to suppress thoughts and emotions were observed after the programme. Furthermore, the effects seem to extend to family interactions, with an increase in positive interactions and a decrease in negative ones. The study leads us to think about the importance of psychological flexibility in children with chronic conditions as a process that mediates the impact of stress and family well-being.

Psychological Flexibility Is Associated with Parental Stress in Relatives of People with Intellectual Disabilities.

The objective of the study was to examine the relationship between psychological flexibility, perceived stress, and psychological heath in relatives of people with a disability diagnosis. 151 relatives completed an online questionnaire that included 6-PAQ (parental psychological flexibility), PSS (perceived stress), GHQ-12 (psychological health) and WBSI (suppression of unwanted thoughts). The results showed significant relationships between the four measured variables. A bimodal distribution was observed in the variables related to psychological flexibility. The multiple regression showed that difficulties in self as context, committed actions and defusion explain a high percentage of the variance of parental stress and general psychological health. The study provides new evidence to consider psychological flexibility as a mediating variable in psychological well-being. The presented data served as the basis for the development of an ACT-based intervention protocol and the implementation of a clinical trial for relatives of children with disabilities.

Dream content and intrusive thoughts in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

Although central to any exhaustive theory of human subjectivity, the relationship between dream and waking consciousness remains uncertain. Some findings suggest that dream consciousness can be influenced by severe disorders of thought content. The suppression of unwanted thoughts has been shown to influence dream content in healthy individuals. In order to better define this phenomenon, we evaluated the persistence of obsessive/compulsive themes across the dream and waking cognition of OCD patients and in a control group of healthy subjects. Participants were administered a shortened version of the Thematic Apperception Test to produce a waking fantasy narration, and were trained to keep a dream diary. Dream and waking narrative contents were analyzed in order to recognize obsessive/compulsive themes, and to calculate Mean Dream Obsession/Compulsion (MDO, MDC) and Mean TAT Obsession/Compulsion (MTO, MTC) parameters. No differences were found between the two populations in terms of MDO, MDC, MTO, nor MTC. Density of obsessive and compulsive themes were significantly higher in dream reports than in waking narratives for both groups. No correlation was observed between MDO/MDC scores and Y-BOCS obsession/compulsion scores in the OCD group. These findings strengthen the discontinuity hypothesis, suggesting that ruminative aspects of cognition are somehow interrupted during dream activity.

The effect of future and past substitute thoughts on the suppression of unwanted thoughts

The effect of future and past substitute thoughts on the suppression of unwanted thoughts

The frequency of involuntary autobiographical memories and future thoughts in relation to daydreaming, emotional distress, and age.

We introduce a new scale, the Involuntary Autobiographical Memory Inventory (IAMI), for measuring the frequency of involuntary autobiographical memories and involuntary future thoughts. Using the scale in relation to other psychometric and demographic measures provided three important, novel findings. First, the frequency of involuntary and voluntary memories and future thoughts are similarly related to general measures of emotional distress. This challenges the idea that the involuntary mode is uniquely associated with emotional distress. Second, the frequency of involuntary autobiographical remembering does not decline with age, whereas measures of daydreaming, suppression of unwanted thoughts and dissociative experiences all do. Thus, involuntary autobiographical remembering relates differently to aging than daydreaming and other forms of spontaneous and uncontrollable thoughts. Third, unlike involuntary autobiographical remembering, the frequency of future thoughts does decrease with age. This finding underscores the need for examining past and future mental time travel in relation to aging and life span development.

The rebound effect in the unsuccessful suppression of worrisome thoughts

The suppression of unwanted thoughts causes the subsequent increase in such thoughts, a phenomenon called the rebound effect of thought suppression. Thought suppression is an important factor in the cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). However, a limited number of studies examine the suppression of worrisome thoughts. The extent of success in suppressing thoughts varies across individuals. Moreover, unsuccessful suppression is associated with the rebound effect. Against this background, the present study investigated the influence of success and failure of suppression on the rebound effect for worrisome thoughts in relation to trait worry. A total of 47 undergraduates participated in an experiment comprising three phases of thought sampling tasks (baseline, suppression, and mention). In the suppression phase, they were required to suppress their main worrisome thought. In the subsequent phase (mention), they were instructed to think about anything they liked. Regression analysis revealed that unsuccessful suppression predicted the rebound effect in individuals with higher levels of trait worry. The findings substantiate the paradoxical effect of thought suppression on worry.

Thought suppression and suicidal ideation: preliminary evidence in support of a robust association

The suppression of unwanted thoughts appears to contribute to the development and maintenance of emotional disorders. This report tested the thought suppression paradigm in relation to suicidal ideation. Based on the ironic process theory, we hypothesized that the suppression of unwanted thoughts, especially suicidal thoughts, would associate with a higher frequency and a greater intensity of suicidal ideation. Study 1 examined cross-sectional associations between self-reported thought suppression and the frequency of suicidal ideation in a nonclinical sample of 166 undergraduate students. Study 2 extended cross-sectional findings in an inpatient sample of 71 suicidal adolescents. Study 3 examined prospective associations between suicidal thought suppression and increases in self-reported suicidal ideation over a 4-week period in a separate nonclinical sample of 118 undergraduate students. Findings across studies support a robust association between thought suppression and suicidal ideation, even controlling for general depressive symptoms. Participants in Studies 1 and 2 who endorsed greater tendencies toward suppression of thoughts, especially suicidal thoughts (Study 2), displayed higher concurrent levels of suicidal ideation. Participants in Study 3 who endorsed greater baseline tendencies toward suppression of suicidal thoughts displayed an increase in the severity of suicidal ideation over time. Suppression of suicidal thoughts may represent 1 mechanism contributing to the persistence of suicidal ideation. Clinicians may wish to explore patients' reactions to suicidal ideation and consider acceptance-oriented strategies among patients who attempt to control unwanted suicidal thoughts.

Power and the suppression of unwanted thoughts: Does control over others decrease control over the self?

Suppressing unwanted thoughts increases the accessibility of these thoughts after suppression is released. Two studies test the hypothesis that the magnitude of post-suppressional rebound is moderated by power. Study 1 measured participants’ thoughts about a white bear under suppression and expression instructions, following Wegner, Schneider, Carter, and White (1987). Study 2 measured stereotype accessibility after a task that required participants to describe one day in the life of an African-American under suppression or no-suppression instructions. Consistently across the two studies, powerful participants showed stronger post-suppressional rebound relative to powerless participants. The consequences of these findings for decision making and stereotyping are discussed.

Swearing Voices: An Experimental Investigation of the Suppression of Hostile Hallucinations

Generally, the suppression of unwanted thoughts is found to be ineffective. Moreover, in the longer run, suppression attempts may backfire in that they produce a delayed increase in unwanted thoughts (i.e. a rebound effect). This ineffectiveness and paradox have been observed in various studies, and with various targets, such as neutral thoughts, obsessive intrusions, worries, addictive urges, and phobia-related cognitions. The present study sought to explore the effect of suppression of a different intrusion, namely a hallucination. Healthy undergraduates were exposed to a laboratory procedure that was to provoke hallucinations. Half of the participants were additionally given instructions to suppress the hallucinations. Results indicated that suppression was somewhat effective in the short run, but ineffective in the long run. However, no rebound effect was observed.

Singular and Combined Effects of Thought Suppression and Anxiety Induction on Frequency of Threatening Thoughts: An Experimental Investigation

The suppression of unwanted thoughts has been hypothesized to play an important role in the maintenance of clinical disorders such as OCD and PTSD. The present study sought to examine the singular and combined effects of thought suppression instructions and anxiety induction (as induced by an anticipated impromptu speech) on the frequency of threat-relevant thoughts. Socially anxious participants were randomized to one of four conditions: (a) thought suppression instructions—anticipated speech; (b) thought suppression instructions—no anticipated speech; (c) no thought suppression instructions—anticipated speech; and (d) no thought suppression instructions—no anticipated speech. Contrary to prediction, those instructed to suppress their target thoughts under conditions of heightened anxiety reported fewer anxious thoughts following suppression than the non-suppression group. This effect was not observed among participants in the no anxiety induction control condition. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that anxiety induction may actually facilitate successful suppression of threat-relevant thoughts. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Thought suppression and cognitive vulnerability to depression

Cognitive reactivity (CR) has been defined as the relative ease with which maladaptive cognitions or cognitive styles are triggered by mild (nonpathological) mood fluctuations. CR has been found to predict relapse of depression (Segal, Gemar and Williams, 1999). This study compared different measures of CR, and also investigated the role of thought suppression as a possible mechanism underlying CR. Participants included 24 previously depressed, and 24 never depressed individuals who underwent a mood induction. They also completed a questionnaire designed to measure CR (LEIDS; Van der Does, 2002a), and participated in the scrambled sentences task (SST). The SST was designed to uncover thought suppression tendencies, and has been shown to discriminate between never depressed and previously depressed samples. LEIDS scores were higher for previously depressed than for never depressed individuals. However, CR as measured with the mood induction did not distinguish between these groups. The LEIDS was correlated with the results of the SST and with self-report measures of thought suppression. Active suppression of unwanted thoughts may be involved in the apparent inactive state of depressive cognitions during remission.

Adult attachment and the suppression of unwanted thoughts.

Adult attachment and the suppression of unwanted thoughts.

Adult attachment and the suppression of unwanted thoughts.

Dismissing-avoidant adults are characterized by expressing relatively low levels of attachment-related distress. However, it is unclear whether this reflects a relative absence of covert distress or an attempt to conceal covert distress. Two experiments were conducted to distinguish between these competing explanations. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed to suppression resulted in a decrease in the accessibility of abandonment-related thoughts for dismissing-avoidant adults. Experiment 2 demonstrated that attempts to suppress the attachment system resulted in decreases in physiological arousal for dismissing-avoidant adults. These experiments indicate that dismissing-avoidant adults are capable of suppressing the latent activation of their attachment system and are not simply concealing latent distress. The discussion focuses on development, cognitive, and social factors that may promote detachment.

Self-Regulation and Animal Behavior

Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The control ofperception. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton. Wegner, D. M. (1992). You can't always think what you want: Problems in the suppression of unwanted thoughts. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 193-225). San Diego, CA: Academic. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34-52. Wegner, D. M. (in press). Why the mind wanders. In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to the question of consciousness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Wegner, D. M., Broome, A., & Blumberg, S. (1994). When trying to relax makes you nervous: Electrodermal evidence of ironic effects of intentional relaxation. Unpublished manuscript. Wegner, D. M., Erber, R., & Zanakos, S. (1993). Ironic processes in the mental control of mood and mood-related thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 10931104. Wegner, D. M., & Wenzlaff, R. M. (in press). Mental control. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. New York: Guilford.

Origins of Ruminative Thought: Trauma, Incompleteness, Nondisclosure, and Suppression

The purpose of this paper is to discuss theories of the origin of ruminative thought. We begin by providing a working definition of rumination, separating rumination from other forms of cognitive activity and distinguishing ruminations from ordinary memories. Then, we review what we believe are the major categories of theory that attempt to account for the existence and nature of rumination. These include theories of traumatization, incompleteness, nondisclosure, and thought suppression. Ruminations may originate for a number of reasons, but it seems they may continue because of our attempts to control them. Evidence from studies on thought suppression suggests that the suppression of unwanted thoughts may in fact fuel the very emotions and thoughts we are trying to avoid. Thought suppression may set up a state in which we not only increase the amount we think about an unwanted thought, but potentially also sharpen our emotional reaction to those thoughts.

Personally relevant intrusions outside the laboratory: Long-term suppression increases intrusion

It has been suggested that the suppression of unwanted thoughts may increase their frequency and that this effect may contribute to some psychological problems. Previous studies have examined this over a period of minutes, in an artificial setting. Suppression over a four day period was evaluated in the present study. Each S was asked to identify a negative intrusive thought which he or she experienced and to record each occurrence of it in conditions designed to maximise the similarity to those experienced by obsessional patients. Ss were randomly allocated to one of three groups. One group was asked to suppress their thoughts whenever they occurred, another group was asked to think about their thoughts whenever they occurred and the third group just recorded the thoughts whenever they occurred. This design allowed experimental control of both attention to and manipulation of the target thoughts in contrast to attention and active suppression. It was found that Ss who suppressed their thoughts experienced more thoughts and found them more uncomfortable than Ss in the other two groups. This is consistent with the theory that suppression increases thought frequency and may be important in the development and maintenance of some disorders.

Dysphoria and thought suppression

Two studies addressed dysphoric individuals' suppression of unwanted thoughts. The mood-congruence hypothesis was that dysphoric subjects would be less successful suppressing negative thoughts and more successful suppressing positive thoughts than nondysphoric subjects. The cognitive-effort hypothesis was that dysphoric relative to nondysphoric subjects would be less successful suppressing thoughts of any kind, particularly in the latter portion of a suppression period. In Study 1, dysphoric and nondysphoric subjects were given either success or failure feedback on a test. They were then asked not to think of this test while completing a 5-min think-aloud procedure. In line with the mood-congruence hypothesis, dysphoric subjects had more intrusions of failure and fewer intrusions of success than nondysphoric subjects. In line with the cognitive-effort hypothesis, dysphoric subjects in both feedback conditions exhibited more intrusions in the fifth, final minute of the think-aloud period. In Study 2, dysphoric and nondysphoric subjects were instructed not to think of the neutral target white bear. Again, dysphoric relative to nondysphoric subjects exhibited more intrusions in the fifth, final minute of the think-aloud period.