Supply-side Factors Research Articles

Barriers to women’s financial inclusion in Burkina Faso

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the barriers to women’s financial inclusion in Burkina Faso. We focus on both demand and supply side factors. Data from Findex for the years 2014, 2017 and 2021 are used. Statistical analysis show that lack of money and distance are the main barriers to women’s financial inclusion in 2014, 2017 and 2021. Interviews with women during the focus discussion groups revealed that access to formal financial products remains a difficulty for these women working in the informal sector; social pressure, particularly the behavior of husbands against the economic emancipation of women, are barriers to the financial inclusion of these women; poor information sharing and financial education are also barriers to financial inclusion for these women. To promote women’s financial inclusion, policies should focus on reducing barriers. To do this, education and access to the decent labor market are necessary to overcome the constraint of lack of money. Regarding distance, the strengthening of mobile banking must continue. To achieve women’s financial inclusion, banks need to create products tailored to women’s needs.

Economic determinants of Ethereum transaction fees in the priority fee and proof of stake periods

ABSTRACT We analyse the economic determinants and dynamics of transaction fees in the Ethereum blockchain before and after two significant platform updates. The first is the August 2021 EIP-1559 ‘London’ upgrade, a switch from user-bid gas price (transaction fee per unit of complexity) to a fee model in which the gas price is the sum of an algorithmically determined base fee and an optional priority fee (tip) chosen by the user. The second update (‘the Merge’) is the switch from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake transactions validation in September 2022. We estimate the impact on Ethereum transaction fees of both demand factors (block utilization, transaction type, ETH price in USD) and algorithmic supply-side factors (the block gas limit and base fee). Using data from nearly 900 million blockchain transactions, we find that the gas price is statistically significantly positively associated with the block utilization rate. A larger share of contract call transactions or legacy (user-bid gas price) transactions is linked with higher gas prices on average. On the supply side, a higher block gas limit is statistically significantly associated with lower gas prices.

The Importance of Estate Planning: A Comprehensive Coverage on Unclaimed Investments in India

Objective: Unclaimed investments in India have been a topic of interest for many individuals and organizations. The issue of unclaimed investments arises when individuals fail to claim their rightful financial assets, such as bank accounts, insurance policies, mutual funds, and other financial instruments. This could happen due to various reasons, including the death of the asset holder without leaving a will or without informing their heirs about the investments. Theoretical Framework: Addressing the issue of unclaimed investments requires a multi-faceted method involving various participants including the government, financial institutions, and the public. One of the key solutions is to enhance awareness among individuals about the importance of keeping track of their investments and updating their personal information with relevant financial institutions. Method: This research paper adopts a comprehensive approach to analyze the issue of unclaimed investments in India, drawing on multiple sources to provide a nuanced understanding of the topic. Results and Discussions: The analysis of the sources suggests that the issue of unclaimed investments in India is a multifaceted challenge, driven by both supply-side and demand-side factors. Research Implications: The unclaimed investments in India have garnered attention due to the significant amount of money involved. According to reports, there are billions of rupees lying unclaimed in various financial institutions across the country. Originality/Value: In the ever-evolving landscape of personal finance, the issue of unclaimed investments has become increasingly prominent, underscoring the critical role that estate planning plays in safeguarding one's financial legacy.

Palestinian small and medium enterprises digital technology adoption intention

This study aims to examine the factors determining Palestinian Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Digital Technology (DT) adoption intention. A modified Technology Organisation Environment (TOE) framework integrated with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory is employed. Data was collected via a questionnaire as a sample for the quantitative approach, and experts’ semi-structured interviews as a sample for the qualitative approach is conducted. The findings presented in this study reveal that SMEs factors such as Business Model, and Enabling Regulatory Environment, are the major factors affecting DT intention adoption by SMEs in Palestine. The study findings determine the enablers and obstacles to SMEs' DT adoption intention. This study contributes significantly to the theoretical understanding of DT adoption via developing a DT framework for the SMEs in Palestine. This study's major contribution to the existing knowledge and literature in DT adoption is via developing a TOE framework for providers (supply-side) factors in general and in Palestine to fill the gaps in past studies and surge the concept and dimensions of technology acceptance from being mobile banking adoption to all DT adoption applications implemented by SMEs. The findings could be useful to policymakers, government agencies, Palestine, and other development partners to design and direct their policy interventions. This study emphasized the importance of digital technologies adoption by SMEs that will improve processes, drives innovation and enhance customer involvements.

From subsidies to nutrition: Investigating effects among cohort children from the Subsidy Reinvestment programme in Nigeria

This study investigates the effect of a nationwide maternal health programme that targets both demand- and supply-side factors on the nutritional status of children under five years old whose mothers were potentially exposed to the programme. We employed a difference-in-differences approach by matching programme beneficiary facilities to the districts and communities where households reside. The data are drawn from the 2008, 2013, and 2018 rounds of Nigeria's Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), comprising responses for approximately 120,000 children. Our findings reveal a significant increase in child dietary diversity, particularly in districts with two beneficiary facilities, suggesting stronger effects with expansive programme implementation. Additionally, we observed positive effects on children's consumption of various nutritious foods for those children in districts with two beneficiary facilities. This study investigates a potential mechanism by which expanding access to healthcare facilities, through funding two clinics per district, may contribute to improved child dietary diversity. Our findings suggest that, unlike districts with one beneficiary facility, those with two funded clinics have a higher likelihood of women engaging in work outside the home and earning cash for it. As shown in the analysis, this mechanism is likely due to easier access to health facilities and better contact with health officers, which facilitate quicker reintegration into the labour market for mothers after childbirth and, in turn, could lead to better maternal earnings and potentially enable a more diverse diet for children. The findings suggest that SURE-P's expansive implementation strengthens child nutrition outcomes and supports maternal economic empowerment. In areas with multiple SURE-P facilities, increased access to healthcare enables mothers to reintegrate into the labor market more quickly, facilitating cash income and fostering a reinforcing cycle of improved child dietary diversity and economic benefits for families. This highlights the potential of scaling such programs to maximize both health and economic outcomes in similar contexts.

EXPRESS: How Socioeconomic Status Shapes Food Preferences and Perceptions

This paper assesses the extent to which consumers from the opposite poles of the socioeconomic distribution weigh three critical food attributes–healthiness, fillingness, and taste–, how they perceive the associations among them, and how differences in weights and associations influence food preferences. The results of a series of eight pre-registered studies in a highly unequal socioeconomic environment (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) show that low (vs. high) socioeconomic status consumers are more likely to (a) choose unhealthy items even when supply-side factors (e.g., affordability and accessibility) are controlled by design, (b) trade healthiness for fillingness (but not taste), and (c) display stronger negative associations between the attributes (healthy = less filling; healthy = less tasty). These findings highlight the importance of a deeper understanding of the psychological differences in food preferences and perceptions and the use of such insights to design interventions aimed at mitigating nutritional inequality. In line with this rationale, the final set of studies shows that, albeit not being a trivial task, it is possible to increase healthy food choices among the disadvantaged by enhancing the fillingness of the healthy options available. Managerial and policy implications are discussed.

Domestic inflation decomposition in a small open economy: Evidence from import price dynamics in Kazakhstan

This paper empirically analyzes the key drivers of inflation in Kazakhstan by differentiating between demand and supply-driven factors contributing to headline inflation. Given that Kazakhstan is highly sensitive to adverse external fluctuations (due to its economic structure), our empirical strategy investigates asymmetric dynamics of prices of goods with high versus low degree of import share. Hence, we develop a methodology to determine the level of “importability” in certain consumption products, which serves as a proxy of vulnerability to external macroeconomic shocks. The results confirm our hypothesis that products with different degree of import content respond differently to major macroeconomic shocks. Consequently, we conclude that headline inflation in Kazakhstan is primarily impacted by supply-side factors, such as the direct transmission of exchange rate changes to prices of products with higher import shares (exchange rate pass-through) and a large component of inflation inertia. Differentiating and properly identifying inflation dynamics of the high-import-content and low-import-content goods have important implications for optimal monetary policy conduct in developing economies.

Framework for responsive financing of district hospitals of India.

The current financing of public-sector district hospitals in India relies on historical budget allocations rather than actual utilization or healthcare needs. We utilized empirical data on healthcare delivery costs to develop the financing framework for these hospitals using a blended payment approach. The primary data on cost of delivering services in 27 district hospitals across nine states of India was analysed along with indicators influencing the demand and supply of health services. Payment for outpatient, inpatient, and indirect services was assessed using the risk adjusted global budget, case-based bundled payment, and per-bed-global budget, respectively. Risk adjustment weights were computed by regressing the cost of outpatient care with demand and supply side factors which are likely to influence the utilization or the prices. Budget impact analysis was conducted to assess the fiscal implications of this payment approach, accounting for current care standards and two scenarios: upgrading district hospitals to Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) or medical colleges. The average annual budget for a district hospital in India is estimated at ₹326 million (US$3.35 million), ranging from ₹66 million to ₹2.57 billion (US$0.8-31.13 million). Inpatient care comprises the largest portion (78%) of the budget. Upgrading to IPHS-compliant secondary hospitals or medical colleges would increase average budgets by 131 and 91.5%, respectively. Implementing a blended payment approach would align funding with healthcare needs, enhance provider performance, and support ongoing financing reforms aimed at strategic purchasing and universal health coverage.

Minding the gender gap in Viet Nam's old‐age pensions: Actuarial insights on addressing women's discrimination in the design of social insurance schemes

AbstractThe article presents an analysis of the factors that shape gender gaps in old‐age pension coverage and outcomes in Viet Nam. The authors argue that gender norms shape not only women's roles and constraints in society, but further influence policy discourse that impact women's access to employment and social security over their life course. Drawing on a mix of quantitative, qualitative and actuarial evidence from the International Labour Organization and other key actors working on women's employment and access to social security in Viet Nam, such as Viet Nam Women's Union, the article seeks to illustrate the confluence of demand and supply side factors that underly gender gaps in old‐age pensions. A key finding from Viet Nam, relevant for many parts of the region and the world, is that women are discriminated against in social security systems by design. This is particularly stark in the legacy design of social insurance systems, that were once tailored to serve a predominantly male, formal workforce. Moreover, without introducing an explicit gender lens in the design of social insurance schemes, for example eligibility criteria and benefit calculations, any proposals for policy reform further risk exacerbating rather than mitigating existing gender gaps in social insurance schemes. The authors propose key recommendations for both Vietnamese policy makers and international actors to address such gender gaps and help achieve the government's commitments towards an inclusive social security system.

Blockchain enabled traceability — An analysis of pricing and traceability effort decisions in supply chains

Despite numerous use cases, enterprise-wide implementations of blockchains have seen limited success. This raises the question of when do firms adopt blockchains and do blockchains benefit supply chains. To answer this, we examine a dyadic supply chain consisting of a buyer and a supplier and analyze their traceability effort and pricing decisions. Our results show that the demand-side, supply-side and reputational factors influencing blockchain adoption are primarily complementary and in the absence of one of them, firms can still adopt blockchain. Furthermore, even in the absence of individual benefits for a supply chain partner, there exist conditions under which blockchain adoption benefits the supply chain that can incentivize players to join blockchain. Overall, we contribute by offering a framework that supply chain players can use to assess the likelihood of blockchain implementation success or failure and address the challenges pertaining to incentives and cost imbalances in blockchain implementation.

Assessing Supply-Side Determinants of Passenger Satisfaction in Long-Distance Expressway Bus Services in Sri Lanka: A Case Study of Southern Expressway

The transportation sector plays a vital role in fostering economic growth, societal connectivity, and individual mobility. Long-distance bus services have emerged as a prominent mode of transportation, offering an efficient and cost-effective means of travel for both urban and intercity commuters. This study aims to comprehensively assess and elucidate the supply-side determinants that significantly impact passenger satisfaction with long-distance expressway bus service in Sri Lanka. To ensure the collection of detailed and relevant insights from frequent users of the Southern Expressway's long-distance bus services, a purposive sampling technique was employed. Data collection was guided by variables identified in the literature review, and exploratory factor analysis was used to analyse the sample data. The study identified six salient supply-side factors affecting passenger satisfaction: service quality, comfort, accessibility and convenience, safety and security, cost, and customer service. These factors explained 74% of the total variance, with service quality being the most influential, accounting for 18% of the total variance. The findings recommend upgrading the bus fleet, maintaining cleanliness, optimizing scheduling, enhancing reservation systems, implementing staff training, improving safety measures, ensuring fair pricing, enhancing customer service, raising passenger awareness, and encouraging innovation to improve expressway bus services, attract more passengers, and build a reliable public transport system.

Long-Run Trade Relationship between the U.S. and Canada: The Case of the Canadian Dollar with the U.S. Dollar

This study investigates the long-run relationship between the U.S. dollar and the Canadian dollar by analyzing the bilateral exchange rate induced by nominal and real shocks. The methodology centers on a structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model, including the analysis of impulse response and variance decomposition to account for the impact of nominal and real shocks on exchange rate movements. This study also decomposes real shocks into demand and supply factors from both Canada and the U.S. and compares their impacts on the nominal and real exchange rates. The results are compared to shocks driven by country-specific nominal factors. This study uses quarterly data from December 1972 to December 2023. The findings suggest that real shocks have a permanent impact on both the nominal and real exchange rates, compared to nominal shocks, which have a temporary impact. Country-specific real supply-side factors have a more significant impact than country-specific real demand-side factors. Country-specific nominal factors barely impacted the nominal and real exchange rates between the U.S. and Canada.

El impacto de las energías renovables sobre el precio mayorista de la electricidad

Rationale Renewable electricity generation capacity is rising significantly in Spain. Given the merit order pricing system used in the wholesale electricity market, this could have profound implications for electricity price dynamics. Takeaways •The share of wind and solar energy in total electricity generation increased from 26% in 2019 to over 40% in 2024 H1. In the first half of this year, wholesale electricity prices were more than 40% lower than they would have been had wind and solar generation remained at 2019 levels. •The model estimated in this article suggests that under the renewable generation deployment scenarios envisaged in the update of the National Energy and Climate Plan, wholesale electricity prices could drop by an additional 50% by 2030. •In any event, the future behaviour of these prices is subject to considerable uncertainty, influenced by various supply-side factors and how demand responds to the new levels of renewable generation.

Precarity and political protest

How does precarity in the labour market affect political engagement? Considering the negative impact of unemployment and atypical employment on turnout, existing research suggests that precarity depresses political participation. However, participation through voting is dependent on supply-side factors and might be an insufficient indicator of engagement with politics. To improve our understanding of this matter, this article investigates the relationship between precarity and protest behaviour, as well as the moderating impact of individual and contextual factors on this relationship. The analysis relies on survey data from thirteen Western European democracies and on a novel operationalisation of precarity that, through the implementation of Bayesian inference techniques on EU-LFS data, allows the capturing of individuals’ vulnerability in the labour market. The results reveal that precarity increases the propensity to protest, exposing the mobilisation potential of precarious workers and suggesting that the representation of this expanding social group might be beneficial for vote-maximizing parties.

Supply-side factors influencing national health insurance uptake, access and use of primary health care: Evidence from the Upper West Region, Ghana

Supply-side factors, such as the availability of health facilities, equipment, practitioners, and drugs, are crucial for improving global healthcare systems. However, systematic evidence of how these factors affect health insurance clients’ access to primary healthcare (PHC) services in Ghana is lacking. This study addresses this gap by examining the impact of these factors on insured individuals' access to PHC services in Wa Municipality. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was employed, involving a quantitative survey of 413 insured individuals randomly selected from 40 communities and 47 healthcare facilities. Purposive sampling was used for qualitative interviews with 17 healthcare providers and 20 key insured informants. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation, independent t-tests, and binary logistic regression, while qualitative data were thematically analysed to provide insight into the quantitative findings. Result from quantitative data showed that Community-Based Health Planning and Services (CHPS) were more accessible than hospitals, diagnostic centres, and health centres. Proximity to health facilities influenced access to PHC services and National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) uptake. Perceived availability and functionality of healthcare equipment also affected NHIS uptake. Qualitatively, health facilities reported a shortage of human resources, such as midwives and nurses, for PHC service delivery. Triangulating quantitative and qualitative results show that healthcare supplies and skilled professionals are essential for NHIS uptake and access to PHC services. This study recommends that Government of Ghana prioritise expanding healthcare facilities, recruiting and retaining skilled practitioners, procuring medical equipment, and equitably distributing essential medications to improve access to essential healthcare services in underserved areas.

Alcohol consumption response to pandemic induced income shocks in India

The study assesses the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on household consumption of alcohol in India, considering both income shocks and supply-side factors. based on a nationally representative household survey conducted by CMIE. Using a 2SLS panel regression model and employing an approach akin to difference-in-differences technique, our study finds that the pandemic induced lockdowns resulted in a sharp increase in the share of alcohol in total expenditure across rural and urban India, and for all income levels. Alcohol consumption varies by education level, by caste, religion, and severity of income shocks. The increased alcohol consumption during the pandemic, and more so among the households that faced a severe income shock, despite the supply restrictions, suggest the stronger impact of stress-response-dampening hypothesis and self-medication hypothesis compared to the income effect. Despite state-imposed supply restrictions, including temporary alcohol shop closures and subsequent reopening with higher taxes, the study raises concerns about a disproportionate rise in alcohol consumption among the most economically impacted. This underscores the need for balanced policy responses, considering both economic stressors and public health imperatives, and emphasizes targeted interventions to mitigate the consequences of increased alcohol consumption during crises.

Violent conflict and the demand for healthcare: How armed conflict reduces trust, instills fear, and increases child mortality

What are the health effects of violent conflict? It is well known that wars kill civilians away from the battlefield and long after the fighting has stopped. Yet why this happens remains only partially understood. While we have good evidence that factors such as the destruction of infrastructure, political neglect, and the out-migration of health workers – what may be called supply-side factors – negatively affect health outcomes, we know much less about how violence shapes the attitudes and behavior towards healthcare use among civilians exposed to violent conflict – what may be called demand-side factors. Here, I theorize that exposure to violence suppresses civilian demand for healthcare through two mediating channels – mistrust of government institutions and fear of future violence – with adverse consequences for health outcomes, particularly child health. To test this theory empirically, I combine information from over 80,000 interviews conducted in 22 conflict-affected countries in Africa with individual- and context-level measures of exposure to violent conflict. Exposure to violence is associated with significantly lower levels of political trust and increased fear of future violence, which in turn predict lower healthcare utilization, lower immunization rates, and higher infant and child mortality. To fully address the health consequences of armed conflict, it is essential that we better understand the attitudinal and behavioral correlates of exposure to violence.

Evaluating the Effects of Public Debt on Sri Lanka’s Economic Growth: A Short-term and Long-term Perspective

Aims: The objective of this paper is to examine whether public debt enhances economic growth in Sri Lanka by separating debt into domestic and external debt. Study Design: The paper adopts the Keynesian demand-side model to estimate GDP on demand-side and supply-side factors such as domestic debt, external debt, gross fixed capital formation (investment in short), labour force, general price level, money supply, government spending and trade openness. In a model where debt causes investment, public debt effects are netted out from investment by removing the estimated investment effects of domestic and external debt. Duration of Study: quarterly data from Q1 2010 to Q1 2023 are utilized to trace the long-term and the short-term effects of domestic and external debt on GDP. Methodology: The ARDL method of estimation is used and the model is estimated in double log form so that estimated parameters reflect output elasticities. A general to specific modelling approach is adopted to find the best suited model. Results: Variables such as government spending, money supply, general price level and labour force are not relevant while domestic debt, external debt, investment (debt effects netted out) and trade openness are significant in describing GDP. The long-term domestic debt elasticity of GDP is 0.588 while short-term domestic debt elasticity (sum of contemporaneous and lag effects) is about 0.63. The cumulative effects of domestic debt on GDP tappers off to 0.60 in the long-run. The result suggests negative impacts (-0.272 and -0.254) of external debt on the economic growth in short-term and long-term respectively. The negative effect of external debt can be justified if recent external borrowings have been used to repay loans taken to finance war and unproductive projects. Conclusion: The paper finds that the domestic public debt creates relatively strong positive effects on GDP in the short-term and the long-term. Contrary to the expectations, the effects of external debt on GDP have become negative both in the short-term and the long-term. The paper also finds that debt effects on GDP have been significantly reduced when debt effect-ridden investment variable is included in the regression in place of debt-effect netted out investment. Thus, this study recommends researchers to carry out further research on why the effects of external debt on GDP become negative. Further, it recommends policy makers to use both domestic and external debt to finance public investment and productivity enhancement projects rather than borrowing merely for the purpose of consumption and repaying of existing debt.

Drivers of public procurement prices: Evidence from pharmaceutical markets

This paper examines the determinants of public procurement prices using comprehensive data on pharmaceutical purchases by the public sector in Chile. We first document sizable price differences between buyers for the same product and quantity purchased: the difference between the average prices paid by buyers at the 90th and 10th percentiles of the distribution is 16 percent. Our main results are related to the importance of market structure in explaining the dispersion in procurement prices. We find that market structure explains three times more dispersion than buyer effects. Moreover, we leverage exogenous variation in market structure due to patent expirations to estimate that the entry of an additional seller decreases average procurement prices by 11.7 percent, which is 72 percent of the price differences implied by the gap between the 90th and 10th percentiles of estimated buyer effects. These results suggest that supply-side factors are relevant determinants of public procurement prices and that their quantitative importance may exceed that of demand-side factors previously emphasized in the literature.

Elite class self-interest, socioeconomic inequality and U.S. population health.

Class-based perspectives on the persistent social gradients in health within modern welfare states largely focus on the adverse consequences of unfettered neoliberalism and entrenched meritocratic socioeconomic selection. Namely, neoliberal-driven economic inequality has fuelled resentment and stress among lower-status groups, while these groups have become more homogeneous with regard to health behaviours and outcomes. We synthesise several sociological and historical literatures to argue that, in addition to these class-based explanations, socioeconomic inequality may contribute to persistent social gradients in health due to elite class self-interest-in particular elites' preferences for overdiagnosis, overprescription and costly high-technology medical treatments over disease prevention, and for increased tolerance for regulatory capture. We demonstrate that this self-interest provides parsimonious explanations for several contemporary trends in U.S. health inequality including (A) supply-side factors in drug-related deaths, (B) longitudinal trends in the social gradients of obesity and chronic disease mortality and (C) the immigrant health advantage. We conclude that sociological theories of elite class self-interest usefully complement theories of the psychosocial effects of neoliberalism and of meritocratic social selection while answering recent calls for research on the role advantaged groups play in generating inequalities in health, and for research that moves beyond technological determinism in health sociology.