Supplementary Source Of Income Research Articles

Empowering Rural Women Through Handloom Micro Enterprises: A Case Study of Udalguri District, Assam

Background: The handloom industry in Assam showcases a remarkable diversity that extends across both rural and urban areas which serves as a supplementary source of income for numerous households in the state. Nalkhamara, a village in Udalguri district of Assam became the workplace for a group of 15 most talented weavers who grouped to form a SHG called Rampar Self Help Group. But unfortunately, they faced significant challenges due to limited resources and absence of marketing organizations. In order to address the issues, the SHG reached out to the KVK, Udalguri for assistance and accordingly, the KVK conducted a demonstration on capacity building of women weavers to enhance their skills in weaving and provided guidance on modern marketing techniques etc. Hence, the present study was planned with the objectives to analyze the economic impact on weavers before and after KVK intervention, types of products manufactured and the constraints faced by them. Methods: The study has followed the case study method with a total of 15 weavers of Rampar SHG having training under KVK, Udalguri. A pre tested questionnaire was prepared to collect data. To measure the economic impact, parameters like gross cost and return, net return, B: C ratio etc. were considered before and after intervention. To evaluate the problems of weavers, open ended questions were asked. Suitable statistical tools were used to analyze the data. Result: With the intervention of KVK Udalguri, the weavers of the SHG able to earn average annual income between Rs. 13.00 to Rs.15.00 lakhs and could able to produced twenty types of diversified handloom products. The constraints faced by them were like improper time management, high input price, exploitation by intermediaries etc.

Assessing the potential of forest stands for edible mushrooms productivity as a subsistence ecosystem service in Ethiopia

Wild edible mushrooms are recognized as a fundamental component of forest management and rural development initiatives, offering farmers a substantial supplementary source of income. Thus, exploring the valuable wild mushrooms and modeling fungal fruiting in different forest systems in the tropics could provide additional insight into fungal responses to environmental factors and allow for better decision making related to forest management in the face of climate change. In many parts of the world, edible wild mushrooms are considered economically valuable non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In Ethiopia, forest management policies based on NTFPs are needed to make better use of these resources. A thorough assessment of wild mushroom as NTFPs that occur in Ethiopian forests and their uses is key to understanding what actions are needed to manage forests at the local level. We aimed (1) to record the fresh weight of edible wild mushrooms produced in natural and plantation forests in Ethiopia and (2) to develop models to predict sporocarp production in these two forest systems. We established 63 sample plots of 100 m2. All mature and young edible wild mushrooms were harvested weekly during the main rainy season to quantify their abundance and fresh weight. Composite soil samples collected from each plot and climate data recorded for each study area were used to develop models. In total, 64 edible fungal species were collected. The average annual total fresh weight production in plantations (2097.57 kg ha–1) was significantly greater than that produced in natural forests (731.18 kg ha–1). Six alternative models were fitted, and three yield categories were also defined as possible responses. Latitude, soil organic matter and minimum daily temperature were identified as relevant explanatory factors. Our yield classification models were fitted to predict the annual yields of edible fungi based on climate, soil and area-specific information in Ethiopia. The developed models should serve as a basis for further studies in Ethiopian forests to optimize forest management based on NTFPs, specifically edible wild mushrooms.

The Contribution of Agricultural Waste to the Production Performance of Free-Range Chickens in the Easternmost Region of Indonesia

Purpose: This research aims to investigate the production performance of free-range chickens fed with banana peel flour as a substitute for bran in the ration.
 Theoretical framework:
 Free-range chickens, commonly known as "non-purebred chickens", are closely related to the community. These chickens exhibit diverse genetic traits and are commonly found in the wider community, for both animal protein consumption and as a supplementary source of income to improve their economy.
 Design/methodology/approach: The research was conducted in Merauke from October to December 2022, and the materials used included 48 three-week-old free-range chickens with a weight of 150-200g, concentrate, yellow corn, bran, and banana peel flour. A Randomized Block Design was used with 4 treatments namely P0 = control diet (0% banana peel flour), as well as P1 = 25%, P2 = 50%, and P3 = 100% banana peel flour substituting bran, distributed into 4 groups based on body weight. The observed variables were ration consumption, weight gain, and ration conversion. Meanwhile, data were analyzed using analysis of variance and further tested with the least significant difference (LSD) test
 Findings: The results showed that the use of banana peel flour as a substitute for bran significantly reduced ration consumption (P<0.05) but did not have a significant effect (P>0.05) on weight gain and ration conversion.
 Research, Practical & Social implications: Utilization of banana peel waste as animal feed will have an impact on reducing environmental pollution and changing the socio-economic conditions of farmers.
 Originality/value:Research using banana peel waste as poultry feed is the first time it has been conducted in Merauke Regency

Tipping and employee attitudes in the hotel sector: extrinsic reward expectancy perspective

ABSTRACT Gratuities serve as supplementary source of income for hospitality employees. However, the influence of tips on the job attitudes of hotel workers is not adequately understood. Consequently, this study examines the interplay between tips, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction among hotel employees in Ho, Ghana. A convenience sampling technique was used to select 285 respondents who completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics while the model was tested with Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results of the study indicate that levels of tips had a significant positive impact on job satisfaction but a negative influence on commitment. Furthermore, reward satisfaction increases the job satisfaction levels of hotel workers. Higher tip earnings will lead to increases in employee job satisfaction while reducingtheir organizational commitment. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Milk Production as Supplementary Source of Income for Rural Scheduled Caste Households in Punjab

Milk Production as Supplementary Source of Income for Rural Scheduled Caste Households in Punjab

Improving elements of sesame growing agrotechnology in the climate conditions of Khorezm province, Uzbekistan

In the agricultural landscape of Uzbekistan, an area of 15-18 thousand hectares is dedicated annually to the cultivation of sesame, serving as a supplementary source of income for many. The resulting sesame harvest is predominantly distributed within domestic markets, while a portion is earmarked for international export. The average sesame seed yield in Uzbekistan stands at 4-5 tons per hectare in rain-fed conditions and 8-14 tons per hectare in irrigated settings. In light of these circumstances, the core objective of this study is to ascertain the optimal timing, seeding rate, and cultivation technique for the production of premium-grade exportable sesame goods, uniquely tailored to the climatic conditions prevalent in the Khorezm province of Uzbekistan. By delving into these variables, researchers aim to uncover strategies that maximize the quality and quantity of sesame crops in Khorezm. Such insights hold the potential to not only enhance local production and export capabilities but also contribute to the agricultural economy of the region. By striving to identify the most effective practices, this study seeks to streamline the cultivation process, boost sesame yield, and elevate the overall agricultural landscape in the Khorezm province.

A Study on Challenges and Suggestions of Farmers to Promote Agro Tourism Centres in Karnataka State in India

Agriculture in India is facing acute problems from production till marketing of the produce. Hence, it is needed to supplement the income of rural folk and the Indian farmers should find an alternate means of livelihood and agro tourism is one such approach. It also has the capacity to generate a marginal or supplementary source of income and also creates employment opportunities to the farmers. The study was conducted in four selected districts viz., Bangalore, Chikmagalur, Hassan, and Madikeri districts of Karnataka state. In total 120 farmers were interviewed personally with an objective to understand the challenges the farmers face in promotion of ATC and also sought their suggestions to overcome the challenges. Expost facto design was used for the study. The study revealed that, high cost of labour (83.33%) was the major financial challenge it is due to fact that the most of the labourers were from outside their locality that comes in the search of job and demand more than the localities. Lack of mindset for commercial approach (83.33%) and weak communication skills of the farmers (75.00%) were human resource challenges this is due to the reason that organised efforts are seems to be lacking in this. insufficient literature for agro tourism practice (87.50%) was a major technical challenge, less tourists during peak agricultural activities (80.00%) and Lack of governmental support (89.16%) were the situational and policy challenges faced by the farmers respectively, The probable reason for the above mentioned challenges might be that, since, the concept has emerged in the recent past, the proper research works have not been undertaken the policy recommendations have not been put forth before the government. Complete tourism package should be provided to encourage ATC (79.16%), ministry of tourism should support and promote ATC (75.83%) and provide sales and marketing support (75.00%) were few of the suggestions given by the farmers to overcome the challenges. The government need to come up with the price policy mechanism with respect to tour packages in order to prevent loss to farmers. If ATCs are promoted and widely adopted, it will provide supplementary income to the farmers and helps in generating the employment at the rural ecosystem.

Survey among keepers of endangered sheep and goat breeds on the influence of wolves on animal husbandry

As Germany's wolf population is steadily becoming more widespread, conflicts with livestock owners are increasing. In this context, the wolves' impact on grazing livestock is of particular interest. The study aimed to investigate the wolves' influence on the husbandry of endangered sheep and goat breeds. Thus, livestock owners were interviewed about the types of measures taken to protect their herds against wolf predation. A questionnaire consisting of 11 questions was published online by the "Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung alter und gefährdeter Haustierrassen e. V. (GEH)" and completed anonymously by 494 sheep and goat owners from all over Germany. 33 % of the endangered sheep breeds and 80 % of the endangered goat breeds are owned by fewer than ten of the livestock owners, who predominantly keep these animals as a hobby or as a supplementary source of income. The cessation of livestock husbandry by any of these owners may therefore have a significant negative impact on the continued existence of the breed in question. However, the mean herd sizes of the studbook breeds do not indicate any negative impact on animal numbers in recent years, although the majority of respondents consider their grazing livestock to be threatened by wolves. It is noteworthy that significantly more livestock owners situated far away from wolf habitats expressed the wish to discontinue their husbandry as opposed to those within range of wolf habitats. Preventative measures mentioned most frequently are fencing and enclosures as well as avoiding certain areas entirely. The use of guard dogs does not seem to play a major role. The abandonment of animal husbandry by individual farmers poses the risk of reducing breed diversity in small ruminants. Therefore, they need special protection, which must be taken into account when planning and defining compensation measures.

(Un)sustainabilities in a Viticulture Region (El Penedès): Market Economy, Public Policies, and Territorial Model

AbstractEl Penedès is a traditional viticulture area, and this activity has been essential to the region's economic development and the construction of its identity. Throughout the last three centuries, family and subsistence farming became a market‐oriented economy, characterized by significant mechanization, grape monocultures, and dependence on chemical inputs. Small‐scale agriculture therefore shifted from being the centre of household economies to a job or a supplementary source of income for a small number of family members. In the summer of 2019, grape prices dropped to levels that jeopardized the sustainability of many small farms, whose final selling prices were not even sufficient to cover production costs. In this context, I have observed through two years of fieldwork (participant observation and interviews) how the viticulture sector suffers aggressive intrusion by agribusiness, positioning farmers at the confluence of a market economy monopolized by three large companies, regulation at different scales that has proved inefficient in ensuring the sustainability of small‐scale agriculture, and a territorial model that reallocates agricultural land to logistics infrastructure. This article concludes that despite farmers' demands for just prices to ensure economic viability and dignity, the sustainability of small farms is effectively under threat today in El Penedès. Indeed, farmers are entangled in a capitalist moral economy that impedes the possibility of imagining real non‐exploitative socioeconomic relations and thereby reproduces and reinforces existing patterns of capital accumulation.

An Exploration of the Role of Housing Equity as a Supplement to Retirement Income

This paper explores the issues involving the use of equity in residential property as a source of supplementary income for the elderly (retirees and soon to be retired) in Ireland. Three focus groups were conducted to generate primary data. The research draws on the behavioural life-cycle hypothesis as an underpinning theory. The findings indicate that there seems to be a nascent interest in housing equity withdrawal among the elderly Irish. In terms of the different means of releasing housing equity, downsizing and rent-a-room appear to be the preferred choices, along with the use of equity release schemes (ERS) as a next preferred alternative. Furthermore, leaving a bequest is considered desirable but not necessary. These results contribute to the framing of public policy regarding retirement income.

Using a Value Chain Approach to Map the Pig Production System in Rwanda, Its Governance, and Sanitary Risks.

Rwanda has a fast growing pig production sector projected to continue expansion, due to rising local and regional demand. We undertook a value chain analysis to establish the flows of pigs and pork in Rwanda and the roles of various actors involved, and to understand governance and sanitary risks in the value chain. Cross-sectional qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with farmers, brokers, butchers, abattoir managers, and veterinarians. Data were collected on pig production methods and inputs, the source and destination of live and slaughtered pigs, value-adding infrastructures (abattoirs and processing factories), the people involved and interactions between them, governance, and challenges. Pig production in Rwanda is dominated by smallholders, mainly as a source of supplementary income and secondarily for manure. Emerging medium-sized and large pig farms were also identified, located mainly around urban areas. Live pig markets are the main mechanism allowing various actors to buy/sell pigs. Brokers have an important role in pig transactions: they are key in setting prices at markets, examining pigs for disease, organising the supply of pigs for abattoirs and for export. Only a few formal pig abattoirs were identified, which mainly supply to pork processing factories based in Kigali and/or export to customers. Local consumers rely on informal slaughtering at farm or bar/restaurant backyards, with irregular veterinary inspection. Formal abattoirs were attended by a veterinary inspector, however a lack of record keeping was noted. Sanitary risks identified were a lack of biosecurity throughout the chain and poor hygiene at slaughter places. Lingual palpation was practised in pig markets to identify cysticercosis infection, however cyst-positive pigs were not destroyed, but were sold for reduced prices in the same market or later informally sold by the owner. There are few veterinarians attending farms, with most services provided by less qualified technicians or self-treatment of pigs by farmers. Overall, this production system is characterised by a high degree of informality at all nodes, combined with the rapid growth trajectory in the sector. These findings provide a basis to plan interventions tailored to vulnerabilities identified in the Rwanda pig value chain.

Influence of season on herd size and birth rate of small-holder goats in the Southern Guinea Savanna


 
 
 
 The study aimed to evaluate the influence of season on herd size and the birth rate of goats in Southern Guinea Savanna, Nigeria. The study was carried out in Idah, Kogi State, Nigeria. A total of 54 households from 6 villages were used for the evaluation. Structured questionnaires on the socio-economic characteristics of the goat owners were administered. Data on the reproductive performance of goats were collected by visual appraisal. The data collected were on herd size, sex, number of pregnant goats, lactating goats and newly weaned kids. The result showed that more women (63.6%) were involved in goat rearing than males (36.4%), and about 91.6% of the respondents had a herd size of 1-20 goats, while only 8.4% had a herd size of 21-30. The goat herd distribution showed that the average herd size was 16.5goats, within the range of 7 to 30 goats. The herd structure was 391 females and 184 males. Three breeds of goats were identified, the West African Dwarf (WAD) goats being the dominant (397), followed by Maradi (Red Sokoto) breed (113), and the least was Pygmy breed (75). Season significantly influenced pregnancy and the number of lactating goats. There were more lactating goats during the cold-wet period and more pregnant goats during the hot-dry season. It was concluded that goat production is still at the peasant level, and goats were kept as a supplementary source of income. The conception rate was high during the cold-dry season, which was manifested in the hot-dry season. More awareness is still needed to increase the production of goats in the area. We recommend a reproduction program should be targeted during the cold-dry season where the conception rate is high.
 
 
 

The edible apple snail [Pomacea dolioides (Reeve, 1856)]; meat yield and sensorial evaluation

The present work investigated the meat yield of the gastropod Pomacea dolioides (Reeve, 1856), and sensorially evaluated its main organoleptic properties. The average meat yield of P. dolioides was 11.9 ± 3.4%, of which 10.9 ± 3.3% was for young females, 12.5 ± 2.8% for adult females, 12.1 ± 4.2% for young males, and 12.4 ± 2.2% for adult males. No significant difference was found in meat yield between sex, but a significant difference was detected in size. A significant difference was also found in the sensory analysis, as the treatment in which the gastropods were fed with grass and ration obtained the best evaluation, reaching over 70% approval for all meat attributes. Although the meat yield of P. dolioides was low, its general quality was satisfactorily accepted by the panellists. The meat of this commercially unexploited gastropod is a source of low-cost protein for people with dietary food limitations and underprivileged populations of the Amazon region, and might constitute an alternative and supplementary source of income for local animal producers.

Creating a hydrosocial territory: water and agriculture in the Liwa Oasis

This article presents the Liwa Oasis as a hydrosocial territory. It is defined by its natural resource, social, economic, and political context and we show how these manifest in policy and practice. The article identifies these components through analysis of the political economy of water management and agricultural production systems. Two distinct hydrosocial periods are defined: from independence in 1971 to the formation of agencies with water sustainability remits in 2006, and then from 2010 to the present, when subsidy regimes incentivized changes to cropping in existing agricultural production systems. The changes between these periods reflect alterations in the hydrosocial cycle stemming from natural resource degradation and from how agricultural policy responded to it, while still meeting social stability and food security objectives. In Liwa, water management and agricultural production regimes reflect the distributive nature of the state, in that agricultural subsidies and payments are a significant source of supplementary income for UAE citizens. The current hydrosocial cycle leads to major groundwater resource degradation, which is beginning to pose a major challenge. This disruption is at the heart of the hydrosocial dialectic playing out now in Liwa: resource degradation and depletion will ultimately require new patterns of resource utilization. Arriving at new practices will require new laws, policies and modes of governance, which will alter the political, social, and economic context.

Collection and Distribution of Mahua (<I>Madhuca longifolia</I>), Tendu (<I>Diospyros melanoxylon</I>) and other NTFP's in Critical Tiger Connectivity Corridor of Maharashtra

Vidarbha Tiger Landscape in Maharashtra is an important Tiger Panthera tigris tigris connectivity linkage between Central India Tiger Conservation Landscape. The Nagzira Nawegaon Brahmapuri landscape acts as sinks for the Tiger source populations between Tadoba, Pench and Kanha Tiger Reserves from North to South and Vice Versa. These corridors are inhabited with several villages, dependent on the forest resources for subsistence and supplementary income. The major source of supplementary income post agriculture period for villages are collection of Tendu ( Diospyros melanoxylon ), Mahua ( Madhuca longifolia ) and other Non-Timber Forest Produces, also the trigger points for human wildlife conflict. Several programmes on reducing dependence on forest resources are implemented in these connectivity corridors by government agencies and Non-Government Organizations. This study from Vidarbha Landscape, first time documents collection and distribution of two of the most collected and other selective NTFP tree species in village common and agriculture areas, between the two Tiger connectivity corridors; Nagzira Nawegaon Tiger Reserve and Brahmapuri Forest Division near Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra. The findings of study indicate marginal landholders and landless more dependent on collection of these resources. The findings of the study contribute towards developing inclusive corridor and conflict management plan for both the regions.

Nexus Between Smallholder Irrigation Farming and Farmers’ Livelihood Outcomes in Ghana’s Guinea Savannah

The aim of the study was to relate small-scale irrigation farming and farmers’ livelihood outcomes using the poorest District in the Upper West Region of Ghana. The livelihood implications of rural farmers remain inconclusive across the literature. Mixed methods and primary data consisting of key informant interviews, household questionnaires and personal observation were used for the study. Data were obtained from 120 farmers drawn from 173 farming households living in four (4) small-scale irrigation dams’ communities. The results revealed a significant source of supplementary income and household food is provided by smallholder irrigation farming. The results further revealed that farmers employ a plethora of technologies including the use of mulch to stem soil moisture loss, livestock manure and chemical fertilizers to remedy soil productivity decline as well as hand-dug wells to supplement the reduction in irrigation water. However, the results revealed that irrigable land is not accessible to non-land owning ethnic groups. Access to irrigable land should be the number one consideration in siting irrigation facilities in Ghana.

Job quality, fair work and gig work: the lived experience of gig workers

Despite growing interest in the concept of gig work, the nature and quality of gig work is not well understood. The article builds on recent research by exploring gig work through an application of notions of job quality associated with Scotland’s Fair Work Convention. Further, in recognising the multidimensional nature of job quality and the divide between objective versus subjective approaches to job quality, the article adopts a checklist or job characteristics approach, focusing on objective aspects of quality work, whilst drawing on subjective experiences to capture lived experience of gig work. A key finding is, in spite of a deficit in objective characteristics of Fair Work, the subjective experience varies between platforms as well as in accordance with individual worker characteristics, such as between those undertaking gig work as a primary or supplementary source of income. A further key finding suggests the growth in gig work reflects the normalisation of what in the past would constitute poor working conditions. Taken together, the findings highlight limitations of theoretical models of job quality due to an emphasis on traditional employment.

The contribution of frankincense to the agro-pastoral household economy and its potential for commercialization - A case from Borana, southern Ethiopia

Frankincense, gum arabic and myrrh are among the most valuable commercial non-timber forest products in the drylands of eastern Africa. This study examines the frankincense value chain and its contribution to the household economy in southern Ethiopia. The study applied a combination of sustainable livelihood and value chain framework to assess the values and the contribution of frankincense to household economies. Data were collected through a household survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and field observations. On average, the annual cash income generated from the harvest and sale of frankincense was estimated at 60 USD per adult equivalent unit (AEU) which was 35% of the total household annual cash income. Our analyses reveal that income from frankincense constitutes the second largest share of the total average household cash income after livestock, which accounted for 60%. The poorer households (44% of the sample) have a relatively higher reliance on frankincense income (49.8%), which is almost as much as the contribution from livestock and non-farm income combined (50.2%). Frankincense income functions as a supplementary source of income for the herders. The value chain analysis shows that the price increases from nearly 1 USD per kg at harvest sites to 5.5 USD per kg at the retail level. Nevertheless, despite the abundance of the resource and a growing domestic market demand, the marketed quantities are low, extraction practices are primitive and both local and national markets are poorly developed. Recommendations for researchers and development practitioners include improving harvesting and processing skills through training, introducing harvesting and post-harvest technologies, improving market access, providing credit services, and training to gatherers and local traders on value-adding activities and marketing skills. These measures could improve the economic returns from frankincense extraction and sale and contribute to increased incomes and more sustainable livelihoods.

Artisanal and small-scale mining, and COVID-19 in sub-Saharan Africa: A preliminary analysis

This article offers preliminary reflections on the potential impact of COVID-19 on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities – low-tech, labor-intensive mineral extraction and processing – in sub-Saharan Africa. In doing so, it revisits the core ideas put forward in the literature in support of showcasing the sector more prominently in the region’s rural development strategies. For decades, scholars have been gathering evidence that points to ASM being the most important rural nonfarm activity in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as how, in providing a supplementary source of income, the sector helps millions of the region’s impoverished farm-dependent families cope with unexpected economic stresses and shocks. Sub-Saharan Africa has managed to avoid high numbers of COVID-19 infections and deaths thus far but it has already felt the economic impacts of the pandemic, perhaps nowhere more than in its remote rural areas, which are already poverty-stricken and produce food at mostly subsistence levels. Intensifying support for ASM, an economic activity which again, many rural Africans are already involved in and familiar with the benefits it provides, in rural development and adaptation plans linked to COVID-19, should be prioritized by the region’s governments and donors. Findings from ongoing research in Mali, Liberia and Ghana – the locations of three of the largest and most dynamic ASM economies in sub-Saharan Africa – reveal that despite its proven ability to stabilize and catalyze development in the region’s rural economies, that even this sector has been affected by COVID-19. They more importantly shed light on how the pandemic has impacted ASM-dependent communities, and importantly, offer clues on how to make the sector more robust and better position it to steer rural communities through the crisis.

Model-based strategic planning for the development of community based tourism: a case study of Ayodhya Hills in West Bengal, India

Indigenous people of a community, having a wealth of rich culture and traditions, should be involved in tourism as owners and not just as service providers. This can be fulfilled by the development of Community Based Tourism (CBT) which aims to involve the host community in planning and maintaining tourism development on their own, to cater to the development of the community directly. The present study tries to explore potentiality and limitations in the development of CBT in the drought-prone and poverty-stricken area of Ayodhya Hills of Purulia. In achieving this objective, the use of the hybrid method SWOT and AHP analysis was considered, which gives a picture of the strength, weakness, opportunity and the threat of the tourism industry of this region. The use of AHP with SWOT is done in this paper to yield analytically-determined priorities for the factors included in SWOT analysis and make them commensurable, thereby giving them the required weightage in the strategic planning process of the CBT. The priorities comparison of the SWOT group with the help of AHP (Analytical Hierarchical Process), reveal that the strengths and opportunities overweight threats and weaknesses; therefore the area is well suited for CBT. The results are utilized in the strategy formulation and evaluation process using the TOWS matrix. With strategic planning and initiation the development of CBT can go a long way in providing a supplementary source of income and livelihood and help to revive in the community members a sense of pride for their culture and environment.