Supplementary Feeding Practices Research Articles

Macronutrient balancing in free-ranging populations of moose.

At northern latitudes, large spatial and temporal variation in the nutritional composition of available foods poses challenges to wild herbivores trying to satisfy their nutrient requirements. Studies conducted in mostly captive settings have shown that animals from a variety of taxonomic groups deal with this challenge by adjusting the amounts and proportions of available food combinations to achieve a target nutrient balance. In this study, we used proportions‐based nutritional geometry to analyze the nutritional composition of rumen samples collected in winter from 481 moose (Alces alces) in southern Sweden and examine whether free‐ranging moose show comparable patterns of nutrient balancing. Our main hypothesis was that wild moose actively regulate their rumen nutrient composition to offset ecologically imposed variation in the nutritional composition of available foods. To test this, we assessed the macronutritional composition (protein, carbohydrates, and lipids) of rumen contents and commonly eaten foods, including supplementary feed, across populations with contrasting winter diets, spanning an area of approximately 10,000 km2. Our results suggest that moose balanced the macronutrient composition of their rumen, with the rumen contents having consistently similar proportional relationship between protein and nonstructural carbohydrates, despite differences in available (and eaten) foods. Furthermore, we found that rumen macronutrient balance was tightly related to ingested levels of dietary fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose), such that the greater the fiber content, the less protein was present in the rumen compared with nonstructural carbohydrates. Our results also suggest that moose benefit from access to a greater variety of trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses, which provides them with a larger nutritional space to maneuver within. Our findings provide novel theoretical insights into a model species for ungulate nutritional ecology, while also generating data of direct relevance to wildlife and forest management, such as silvicultural or supplementary feeding practices.

A glance at achievements of SASAS and animal scientists in southern Africa over more than 50 years

With the congress theme of ‘Golden Innovations for Sustainable Animal Agriculture’, it would be opportune to look not only at innovations with present and future potential, but at those ‘golden innovations’ that have been achieved and established over more than five decades. Many of these innovations still form the basis of many aspects of present-day sustainable animal agriculture in southern Africa. This brief review covers three areas, namely the history of the South African Society for Animal Science (SASAS), achievements of animal scientists, mainly in the earlier years of the Society, and the coming of age of professionalism in the animal science profession. The South African Society of Animal Production (SASAP) was founded on 28 April 1961 in Pretoria. The name was later changed to the South African Society for Animal Science. The theme of the first congress of SASAP was ‘Efficiency in Production’, a theme that is still relevant. In 1971 the South African Journal of Animal Science (SAJAS) was initiated, and by 2017 the 47th volume has been published. A large amount of knowledge that is applicable to local conditions has accumulated and should be drawn upon to avoid ‘reinventing the wheel’. In the 1950s to 1970s, Professor Jan Bonsma developed the concept of functional efficiency of cattle and principles that focused on adaptability and sustainability. Extensive research was conducted on the feeding of urea and phosphorus to grazing livestock, leading to the practice of urea-containing rumen-stimulating winter supplementation of ruminants. South Africa was considered a world leader in the field of supplementary feeding practices. South Africa has a proud history in the discipline of animal genetics and the practical application of breeding principles to enhance livestock productivity, and is in the forefront with studies on the genomics of livestock in southern Africa. SASAS was instrumental in establishing the professional status of animal scientists in South Africa. The vision is that an animal scientist should be identified as the expert in his/her field and the best qualified person to advise on matters such as animal breeding, nutrition and general management of livestock. SASAS council also acts as a mouthpiece for and custodian of animal scientists. The society protects the interests of animal scientists, is pro-active in promoting animal science, and acts as a watchdog over the professional activities of members. Keywords: Animal production, history, professional animal scientist

The importance of intrinsic traits, environment and human activities in modulating stress levels in a wild ungulate

Identifying the ecological and anthropogenic processes that affect wildlife physiology, and that may operate as chronic stressors, is of prime importance to implementing appropriate management and conservation strategies. Although advances have been made in understanding the physiological ecology of wild ungulates, little is known of how multiple intrinsic and ecological factors work, either independently or synergistically, to modulate their stress responses. By using faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) as indicators of stress, a set of environmental and human determinants affecting the stress physiology of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) was examined in the Mediterranean ecosystems of south-western Europe, where this species is subjected to contrasting weather regimes and hunting management systems. Variation-partitioning techniques were also used to estimate the comparative influence of factors related to an individual’s intrinsic characteristics, environmental conditions and management practices in shaping physiological stress levels. Our results showed that factors related to hunting management were the main drivers of FGM variation in red deer, followed by those related to the environmental conditions and individuals’ traits, and their effects were closely associated to spatio-temporal variability. Holding massive hunting events involving the use of hounds, as well as high population densities, were related to more long-term stress levels in the populations studied. Evidence was also found that supplementary feeding practices may mitigate the negative effects of reduced food availability in overabundant deer populations. Weather conditions were also significant factors explaining variation in stress levels; accumulated rainfall and an increase in ambient temperatures during the coldest months were associated with a decrease in stress hormone levels. No differences in hormonal concentrations were found between males and females, but higher levels of hormone metabolites were detected in younger animals in both sexes. Our findings provide an integrated perspective of how multiple factors impact on stress physiology in large wild herbivores and highlight the importance of considering management practices, as well as spatio-temporal variation, when assessing stress-inducing factors in wild populations. Given the implications of this study regarding the impact of human activities on physiological stress levels in wild animals, it could be an important basis to support wildlife management decisions.

Experimental feeding regime influences urban bird disease dynamics

Wild bird feeding often results in high densities of birds, potentially facilitating transmission of disease. Wild birds are major reservoirs of many zoonotic diseases, and although a number of avian disease outbreaks have been linked to bird feeders, urban bird‐feeding and its role in disease systems remains poorly studied. We examined the impacts of typical supplementary feeding practices on the health status of feeder‐visiting birds at experimental feeding stations in an urban area of New Zealand. Over an 18‐month period, we screened birds captured at feeding and non‐feeding properties for three pathogens and four groups of parasites to determine whether feeding altered disease dynamics. We also assessed body condition. All pathogens and parasites were detected in at least one garden bird species. Feeding stations tested positive for Salmonella enterica Typhimurium on ∼7% of occasions, confirming that structures used in feeding are a potential transmission pathway. Feeding influenced some parasite infection parameters; these effects varied among host species. In silvereyes Zosterops lateralis, helminth prevalence and abundance were lower at feeding properties compared to non‐feeding properties. In contrast, Eurasian blackbirds Turdus merula at feeding properties had a higher abundance of helminths. House sparrows Passer domesticus at feeding properties had a higher abundance of feather lice. Furthermore, our feeding regime significantly affected body condition in house sparrow and silvereye, though no associations between parasite parameters and body condition indices were found. Our results demonstrate that feeding practices can have varied effects on avian health, including no observable effects for some disease agents in some host species. Disease risks are present, however, thus understanding and reducing these risks should be a key goal for all stakeholders to protect birds that use feeders and other wildlife.

Newborn Care among Tribes of Central India

This article highlights the state of maternal and newborn health and traditional practices observed by tribes of central India. The study presents a review of micro level studies conducted in undivided Madhya Pradesh state and wherever needed these results are supported or compared with the national and state level statistics. The study demonstrates that utilisation of maternal and child health services is very poor among the tribes of central India. Clinically acceptable maternal and newborn care practices for delivery, cord cutting and care, bathing of mother and newborn and skin massage are uncommon. Therefore, newborns remain at high risk of hypothermia, sepsis and other infections. Prelacteals, supplementary feeding practices and delay in breastfeeding are very common, although colostrum is less frequently discarded. Malnutrition is a severe problem among tribes and many tribal children and women are severely malnourished as well as anaemic.

Farm- and flock-level risk factors associated with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza outbreaks on small holder duck and chicken farms in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam

After 11 consecutive months of control, the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam experienced a wave of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks on small holder poultry farms from December 2006 to January 2007. We conducted a retrospective matched case–control study to investigate farm- and flock-level risk factors for outbreak occurrence during this period. Twenty-two case farms were selected from those where clinical signs consistent with HPAI H5N1 had been present and HPAI H5N1 had been confirmed with a positive real-time PCR test from samples obtained from affected birds. For every case farm enrolled, two control farms were selected matched on time of outbreak occurrence, farm location and species. Veterinarians conducted interviews with farmers, to collect information on household demographics, farm characteristics, husbandry practices, trading practices, poultry health, vaccination and biosecurity. Exact stratified logistic regression models were used to assess putative risk factors associated with a flock having or not having a HPAI outbreak. Nested analyses were also performed, restricted to subsets of farms using scavenging, confinement or supplementary feeding practices. Risk of an outbreak of HPAI H5N1 was increased in flocks that had received no vaccination (odds ratio (OR)=20.2; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0, +infinity) or only one vaccination (OR=85.2; 95% CI: 6.5, +infinity) of flocks compared to two vaccinations, and in flocks on farms that had family and friends visiting (OR=8.2; 95% CI: 1.0, +infinity) and geese present (OR=11.5; 95% CI: 1.1, +infinity). The subset analysis using only flocks that scavenged showed that sharing of scavenging areas with flocks from other farms was associated with increased risk of an outbreak (OR=10.9; 95% CI: 1.4, 492.9). We conclude that none or only one vaccination, visitors to farms, the presence of geese on farms and sharing of scavenging areas with ducks from other farms increase the risk of HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry flocks in Viet Nam.

Breast Feeding Practices among the Hakkipikkis: A Tribal Population of Mysore District, Karnataka

The practice of breast-feeding is almost universal. In the present study, an attempt was made to understand various aspects of feeding practices among the Hakkipikkis of Mysore district of Karnataka state. One hundred and twenty five (125) mothers were interviewed personally on breast feeding practices such as Initiation of Breast-feeding, Duration of Breast feeding, Introduction of pre-lacteal feed and Supplementary feeding practices etc.

Breast Feeding Practices among the Hakkipikkis: A Tribal Population of Mysore District, Karnataka

The practice of breast-feeding is almost universal. In the present study, an attempt was made to understand various aspects of feeding practices among the Hakkipikkis of Mysore district of Karnataka state. One hundred and twenty five (125) mothers were interviewed personally on breast feeding practices such as Initiation of Breast-feeding, Duration of Breast feeding, Introduction of pre-lacteal feed and Supplementary feeding practices etc.

Seasonal variation in the concentrations of conjugated linoleic and trans fatty acids in milk fat from commercial dairy farms is associated with pasture and grazing management and supplementary feeding practices

A study of irrigated pasture-based dairy farms that used split calving (autumn and spring) was undertaken in northern Victoria, Australia, to examine associations between nutrition, time of year and season of calving on the concentrations of isomers of trans 18 : 1 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) in milk fat. Factors associated with time of year explained most of the variation, with the highest concentrations observed in spring and summer when pasture intake by herds was high. However, there was substantial variation observed between herds and time of year. The mean total CLA concentration was 9.1 mg/g milk fatty acids (range 1.1–35.4 mg/g) with the cis,trans-9,11 accounting for ~84% of the total CLA. The mean total trans 18 : 1 concentration was 60.5 mg/g milk fatty acids (range 13.6–267 mg/g) with vaccenic acid (trans-11 18 : 1) accounting for ~53% of total trans 18 : 1 fatty acids. Total CLA and vaccenic acid were highest in August–September (southern hemisphere spring) (15.1 and 76.3 mg/g milk fat) and lowest in November–March (5.6 mg/g milk fat) and May–July (9.53 mg/g milk fat), respectively. There was no association between season of calving and milk CLA or trans 18 : 1 fatty acid concentrations. Trans-10 and -11 18 : 1 fatty acids and trans/trans-CLA were negatively correlated with milk fat concentrations. Management strategies designed to increase the concentration of CLA and trans 18 : 1 fatty acids in milk fat would not need to consider the effects of season of calving or stage of lactation, but should focus on pasture availability and quality.

Body weight and growth rate of South African Angora goat kids under different pre- and post-weaning management systems

The data used for this study were collected on 16 644 kids born between 2000 and 2004 in 12 different Angora goat studs representing different management systems. Body weight and growth rate of kids from birth to 16 months of age, as well the 18- and 21-month body weights and first kidding performance of ewe kids were evaluated. Variable growth rates were recorded among kids in the different studs, which can be ascribed largely to different environments and supplementary feeding practices. The pre-weaning growth performance of both ram and ewe kids was satisfactory. However, the same did not apply for post-weaning growth rates. In those flocks where kids did not receive any supplementary feeding after weaning, their body weights remained virtually constant from weaning up to eight months of age. This phenomenon where especially ewe kids did not grow well after weaning, needs to be investigated further, since it influences the reproductive ability of young ewes directly. This was evident from the poor reproductive performance of young ewes in some of the studs. On the other hand, the effect of different pre-weaning treatments did not seem to be carried over to body weight and reproductive performance at first kidding age. South African Journal of Animal Science Vol. 37 (2) 2007: pp. 132-141

Seasonal variation in milk production and cheese yield from commercial dairy farms located in northern Victoria is associated with pasture and grazing management and supplementary feeding practices

A study of irrigated pasture-based commercial dairy farms that made use of split calving (two distinct periods of calving; autumn and spring) was undertaken between April 2001 and March 2002 in northern Victoria, to examine associations between herd nutrition, time of year and season of calving and the production and composition of milk. On average, herds that had access to higher digestibility pasture or were fed more cereal grain-based concentrates produced more milk. However, the average marginal yield of 4% fat corrected milk/kg cereal grain-based concentrates was less than responses achieved under experimental conditions in northern Victoria. Herds that calved in autumn had different production characteristics to those that calved in spring, in that they did not show an early lactation peak in milk yield and produced milk with lower average concentrations of crude protein, casein and fat. Despite this, herds that calved in autumn had greater persistency of milk yield in mid to late lactation, when they tended to be better fed on pasture, so that yields of milk solids over a notional 310-day lactation were similar for both calving groups (523 v. 529 kg fat + protein; autumn v. spring, respectively), but herds that calved in autumn produced milk with a lower potential to yield cheddar cheese (10.2 v. 10.6 kg cheese/100 kg milk; P < 0.01). Farms that produced milk in the lowest quartile for potential to yield cheddar cheese differed from the top quartile in that they: (i) milked fewer cows (175 v. 250); (ii) fed less supplements (5.6 v. 9.4 kg DM/cow.day); (iii) walked their herds shorter distances between pasture and the dairy (2.2 v. 3.2 km/day); (iv) allocated lower herbage allowances (33 v. 43 kg DM/cow.day); and (v) grazed pastures at a mass low enough to have restricted pasture intake (< 3 t DM/ha), about twice the frequency of farms (0.40 v. 0.17) in the top quartile. Greater productivity of the dairy industry in northern Victoria could be achieved through better grazing and pasture management and supplementary feeding practices on farms.

Effects of gastro-intestinal and lungworm nematode infections on ewe productivity in farm flocks under variable rainfall conditions in Syria

Ten farm flocks in north-west Syria were monitored over four years to determine the effect of gastro-intestinal and lungworm nematode infections on Awassi ewe productivity. A group of ewes in each flock served as the control, while the other was treated with fenbendazole in the autumn and in spring. The flocks were visited each month to start with and every three months later in the trial to collect faecal samples, and recordings were made of ewe and lamb live weight, ewe body condition score, changes in flock inventory and supplementary feeding practices. Treatment with the anthelmintic had no beneficial effect on ewe fertility, mortality and survival. But in spring treated ewes were heavier and generally had better body condition than untreated ewes, and this was associated with heavier lambs at birth and at weaning. Stepwise regression analysis suggested that better management, such are more rigorous culling, resulted in higher ewe fertility and survival. The overall effect of treatment on annual ewe productivity was small, equivalent to 0.5–1.0 kg additional lamb weaned per ewe exposed to rams. This covered the cost of the treatment. The trial demonstrated that useful studies on nematode parasites can be conducted in farm flocks and this gives the results added value for predicting the impact of treatment on other flocks in north-west Syria.

Classification of low-resource livestock producers in the North West Province

A survey of livestock producers (n= 117) was conducted in the Taung district of the North West Province in order to identify target groups for livestock improvement among farming communities.The data recorded included livestock numbers and herd structure (young and mature), off-take, purchases of livestock, consumption of own stock, milk and purchase of red meat for home consumption. Data on feeding management and adoption of supplementary feeding practices were also recorded. Data were analysed using multi-variate statistics. The first step was to apply a variable reduction technique (ACECLUS) on livestock numbers and production indices in order to generate canonical variables, three of which were used in an hierarchical cluster analysis ( Wards method) to decide on the appropriate number of clusters. The pseudo-F, pseudo-t 2 and the cubic clustering criterion were all unanimous for a 4-cluster solution which accounted for 70% of the variation. However the clusters so developed were further finely adjusted using a non-hierarchic al procedure, FASCLUS (SAS, 1987). The validity of these clusters (recommendation domain) was established using canonical discriminant analysis on variables not used in clustering. Using Chi-square statistics, it was then finally established whether these groups of respondents differ in their management practices, perceived potential of supplementary feeding and livestock production constraints. Results and Discussion Cluster 1 contained 9.4 % of respondents, recorded the highest lamb holdings, sheep off-takes and also highest sheep production index (PI; Table 1). This group also recorded intermediate levels of kids, goat off-take and goat PI. This profile is typical of small ruminant producers. Cluster 2 contained 6.8 % of the respondents, is characterized by intermediate levels of lambs, sheep off-take and sheep PI. This profile is typical of producers engaged in moderate sheep farming. Cluster 3 comprised 73.5 % of the respondents, who have low levels of livestock, off-takes and consequently low production indices. This typifies a subsistence group of producers. Cluster 4 comprised 10.3 % of respondents who recorded the highest number of kids, goat off-take and goat PI, which is typical of goat producers. The number of calves, chicken off-take, cattle production index did not differ among the clusters. The following hypotheses were tested to validate the typology developed in table 1: (a) Cluster 1 producers with highest number of lambs must have the highest levels of sheep value and are unlikely to purchase beef or mutton because part of sheep off-take is for home consumption (b) Cluster 4 producers with highest kids holdings should have highest levels of goat value, and goat milk consumption and are unlikely to purchase beef, mutton or goat meat. According to Hair et al. (1992) variables with loadings of absolute values greater than 0.3 are significant discriminants. The first two discriminant functions accounted for 96% of the variation, thus suggesting that a reasonable classification has been achieved. Function 1 loaded significantly for sheep value (0.95), donkey value (0.25), beef purchase (-0.29) and mouton purchase (-0.30) and group means for this function validates and

Effect of strategic supplementary feeding on ewe productivity under range conditions in North Kordofan, Sudan

Strategic supplementary feeding practices were imposed on ewes prior to mating (flushing) and during late pregnancy (steaming-up) at two locations in North Kordofan, Sudan. The objective was to improve ewe reproductive performance and increase lamb birth weight. A completely randomized block design was used and the results analyzed from the economic point of view. Strategic supplementary feeding of ewes increased conception and lambing rates ( P<0.01), reduced abortions ( P<0.01), and resulted in higher lamb birth weights ( P<0.05). The treatment also reduced ewe weight loss ( P<0.05) and caused no ewe mortality. Respective lambing rates for the supplemented and control ewes were 91.7 and 41.7%. Strategic supplementary feeding was economically more advantageous and could accrue up to 382540 additional Sudanese pounds (US $273.24) in returns. It was concluded that steaming-up and flushing are essential for improving ewe reproductive performance, increasing lamb birth weights, and minimizing pregnancy stress of ewes. Hence, the practice is recommended in similar ecological zones to improve productivity of desert sheep.

Supplementary feeding pattern and rate of liveweight gain in winter-spring affect wool production of young Merino sheep on the south coast of Western Australia

The effects of different supplementary feeding practices in summer-autumn and management strategies on green pasture on liveweight change, wool growth rate, annual wool production and wool characteristics of young Merino wethers were examined at 2 farms. The grain feeding treatments were lupins (L) or lupins and oats (LO) fed in amounts that were adjusted to try and maintain liveweight, or lupins and oats (LOG) fed at a higher rate. The objectives of liveweight maintenance or gain were not always achieved, but liveweight patterns differed between LOG compared with L or LO during summer-autumn. The sheep used at farm 1 were aged 4.5 months and liveweight 32 kg at the start of the experiment, while those at farm 2 were 6.5 months and liveweight 39 kg. The stocking rate in summer-autumn was 8 wethers/ha at both farms. During supplementation, sheep on LOG had a higher (P&lt;0.05) liveweight change compared with those on L or LO (farm 1, 15 v. -8 g/sheep. day; farm 2, -35 v. -51 g/sheep. day) and clean wool growth rates (farm 1, 7.1 v. 6.4 g/sheep. day; farm 2, 5.1 v. 4.8 g/sheep.day). The sheep on LOG grew broader (P&lt;0.05) wool than those on L or LO (farm 1, 19.0 v. 18.5 �m; farm 2, 21.7 v. 20.8 �m), and at farm 1 length was also greater (P&lt;0.05) (114 v. 111 mm), while at farm 2 staple strength was greater (P&lt;0.01) (22.9 v. 16.4 N/ktex). There were no significant differences in annual clean wool production. There were positive (P&lt;0.01) relationships between staple strength and liveweight change to the time of minimum liveweight in summer-autumn. After green pasture on offer reached 500 kg DM/ha in autumn, different liveweight change patterns were achieved in 2 groups (LS, lower stocking rates; HS, higher stocking rates) of sheep at each farm by adjusting stocking rates. Within a farm, the LS and HS groups were comprised of equal numbers of sheep from each replicate of the supplementary feeding treatments. There were differences (P&lt;0.05 to 0.01) in liveweight change between LS and HS (farm 1, 93 v. 72 g/day; farm 2, 127 v. 60 g/day), the differences being more pronounced at farm 2. The differential stocking rates at farm 2 resulted in differences in clean wool growth rates (P&lt;0.01), in clean wool production (4.22 v. 4.53 kg, P&lt;0.05), and fibre diameter (20.8 v. 21.4 �m, P&lt;0.01), but there were no significant effects on staple length or strength. There were no significant effects of the supplementary feeding treatments imposed in summer-autumn on the responses to the stocking rate treatments on green pasture.

Infant feeding in Bolivia: a critique of the World Health Organization indicators applied to demographic and health survey data.

Infant feeding is a multidimensional activity that can be described and analysed in many different ways. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recently issued recommended indicators for assessing infant feeding practices. This paper presents these indicators and demonstrates their applications using the 1989 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data for Bolivia. The results indicate that, although most Bolivian infants are breastfed and two-thirds are breastfed for > 1 year, supplementary feeding practices deviate considerably from international recommendations. Only 58% of infants < 4 months old are receiving breastmilk alone (the 'exclusive breastfeeding rate') and a similarly low percentage (54.7%) of 6-9 month olds are receiving the recommended combination of breast milk plus solid or semi-solid foods (the 'timely complementary feeding rate'). Furthermore, almost half of breastfed infants < 12 months old are also receiving bottle feeds. The infant feeding practices of city residents are least likely to conform to the infant feeding recommendations, while practices of mothers who have always lived in the country are most likely to be similar to the WHO guidelines. Mothers who have moved to the city since the age of 12 are most likely to be giving their infants other milks in addition to breast milk and to be bottle feeding their infants. The WHO infant feeding indicators provide a useful framework for quantifying infant feeding practices, and most of the indicators can readily be applied to DHS data. Nonetheless, improvements can be made in both the indicators themselves and the DHS questionnaire to improve reporting of internationally comparable infant feeding information.

Return to normalcy: Nutrition and feeding practices in Phnom Penh, Cambodia

While Cambodian society continues its slow recovery from a decade of war and trauma, the longer‐term consequences of the human losses and disruption of normal family life experienced during the 1970's on child nutrition and feeding practices are unknown. The study assessed the anthropometric status of 379 children from birth to 35 months in the Municipality of Phnom Penh; examined breast‐feeding, supplementary feeding practices and dietary composition; analysed the nutrient content of infant foods, and attempted to measure the influence of four different physical and socio‐economic environments on child nutritional status. Nutritional status varied according to urban environment (weight‐for‐age 0.0<0.05); weight‐for‐height (p <0.01). Densely populated urban zones showed the lowest rates for malnutrition, peripheral industrial zones the highest; low density urban and rural areas showed intermediate rates. Levels of maternal education and daily food expenditures varied with nutritional status and may explai...