Supercritical Fluid Extraction Process Research Articles

Intensification of the SFE Using Ethanol as a Cosolvent and Integration of the SFE Process with sc-CO2 Followed by PLE Using Pressurized Ethanol of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.) Larvae Meal-Extract Yields and Characterization.

The objective of this research was to investigate and compare the results obtained in the intensification and integration of (sc-CO2) under different pressure conditions (25 and 30 MPa) at 60 °C. When intensifying the process, ethanol (10%) was used as a co-solvent (sc-CO2 + EtOH). In the process integration, black soldier fly larvae flour, defatted via supercritical extraction (SFE), was the raw material for pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) using ethanol as solvent. The extract yields, fatty acid profile, free fatty acids, triacylglycerols (TAGs), oxidative stability, and nutritional quality of the oil obtained using sc-CO2 + EtOH were evaluated. The composition of bioactive compounds (carotenoids, acidity, antioxidant compounds, tocopherols, and phospholipids) was determined in both extracts. The yields of the extracts were different by 32.5 to 53.9%. In the extracts obtained with sc-CO2 + EtOH (10%), the predominant fatty acids were oleic, palmitic, and linoleic, with considerable levels of desirable fatty acids (DFA), tocopherols, and phospholipids. The nutritional indices showed good values for polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids (PUFAs/SFAs), above 0.45%. Extracts from larvae meal defatted with SFE showed carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity. HPTLC and HPLC analyses indicated the presence of amino acids, sugars, phenolics, and organic acids in their composition. This study revealed that the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process, or its conditions, can modify the fatty acid composition and the presence of minor bioactive compounds in the obtained extracts.

Axisymmetric flow model of cannabis oil extraction of supercritical fluid extraction CO2 process

Supercritical fluid extraction using CO2 is a widely recognized method for purifying oil extracts. Understanding the extraction process is important for improving yields. While most research has focused on one-dimensional simulations, there is a need for three-dimensional models that better simulate real extraction behavior. This paper focuses on a two-dimensional axisymmetric model to study the complexities of three-dimensional extraction processes. The proposed mathematical and axisymmetric model describes the extraction of cannabis using a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) CO2 process. The COMSOL program was used to solve 2D axisymmetric and laminar flow dynamics within the extractor. The velocity was derived from the axisymmetric Navier-Stokes equation was used in the mathematical model. A 2D mathematical and axisymmetric model was developed based on 1D Reverchon models, and it was validated using experimental data. The experimental data were used to determine one unknown parameter. The total mass transfer coefficient (K) was determined from the experimental results and integrated into computational model. Creating a computational model, meshing, and conducting a 2D axisymmetric simulation analysis of Cannabis sativa L. oil extraction. The proposed curve was computed using a numerical method and was adjusted iteratively to converge with the experimental data, verified by minimizing the Root Mean Square (RMS) error. The experimental data yielded a total mass transfer coefficient (K) of 1.0194 x 10-8 m/s, which was then used in the 2D axisymmetric simulation. The results of the axisymmetric simulation show the concentration distribution within the extractor. The predictions of the proposed numerical 2D solutions closely aligned with the experimental data. The concentration of oil in the axisymmetric results is in accordance with the velocity. The model used in the supercritical fluid extraction process is ideal for purifying extractions, especially for medical and pharmaceutical purposes. This model can be further developed into more complex process and new design extractor for achieving high performance extraction. The scientific community can benefit from the model that combines the Navier-Stoke equation and extraction equation. It can be used to improve extraction simulations for other extraction methods or supercritical fluid in different fields.

Innovative methods for extracting useful substances from plant raw materials: literature review

The article presents a review of literature on bioactive substances and innovative methods of extraction of biologically active substances from plant raw materials, discusses the need to develop new extraction methods to preserve the structural and functional properties of the extracted compounds. The study includes analysis of recent publications on extraction methods and bibliometric mapping using VOSviewer software. The authors review various methods including supercritical fluid extraction, fermentation, ultrasonic and microwave processing. Special attention is given to combined methods such as enzyme extraction using ultrasound and microwaves. The advantages and disadvantages of new extraction methods, as well as combinations of techniques in terms of increasing the potential for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant raw materials are determined. The work is intended to stimulate interest in the development of new extraction methods and to promote research in this field.

Re-Valorization of Red Habanero Chili Pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) Waste by Recovery of Bioactive Compounds: Effects of Different Extraction Processes

Inadequately managed agricultural waste significantly impacts the environment, health, and economy. This pollution stems from the underutilization, inadequate awareness, and insufficient treatment of agricultural waste. Fruit and vegetable wastes are valuable sources of bioactive compounds. This study aimed to revalorize discarded waste from red habanero chili peppers (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) by extracting bioactive compounds through different extraction processes: maceration (ME), maceration assisted by ultrasound (US), Soxhlet extraction (SE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and supercritical fluid extraction with a co-solvent (SFEC). The extraction processes had significant effects on extraction efficiency and phytochemical profile (capsaicinoids and carotenoids recovery). The results indicated that the highest-efficiency process was SFEC, in addition to its high phytochemicals recovery (14.9 mg of total capsaicinoids and total carotenoids 292.09 µg per gram of sample). Concerning the phytochemical profile of the extract, the maceration process yielded the highest concentration of compounds, followed by US and SFEC. These data reveal that the use of the SFE and SFEC processes is recommended for extracting phytochemicals with biological activity from red habanero chili pepper waste for diverse industrial applications.

Comparing Quality and Functional Properties of Protein Isolates from Soybean Cakes: Effect of De-Oiling Technologies

Driven by growing concerns about food supply and the environment, research on alternative protein sources has become increasingly important. In this context, de-oiled seed cakes, particularly soybean cakes, have emerged as a promising option. However, the conventional methods, such as organic solvent extraction, from which these cakes are obtained present several limitations. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) as an alternative method for de-oiling soybean seeds and obtaining related protein isolates. By using SFE for de-oiling, it was possible to achieve 19% more protein isolates from soybean cakes than the conventional de-oiling method using hexane. Moreover, protein isolates from the SFE de-oiled cake reported significantly improved (p < 0.05) emulsifying abilities and water absorption capacity. Gel electrophoresis and differential scanning calorimetry indicated the presence of a higher concentration of proteins in their native state in the SFE de-oiled flour. Finally, results from the sulfhydryl group content, surface hydrophobicity, and protein dispersibility index also supported these conclusions. The SFE process produced de-oiled soybean cakes with superior functional characteristics and lower environmental impact. Thus, this study provided important information for the food industry to develop more sustainable and healthier production methods.

Comparison of the composition and cost estimation of steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction from leaves of Lippia graveolens

Lippia graveolens, mostly known as Mexican oregano, is an aromatic plant with great economic im-portance. However, very little is known about the reasons that could explain the variation observed with respect to the yield and composition of the essential oil obtained. The effect of steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction processes on composition, yield and economic viability were evaluated. The essential oil was obtained by steam distillation, with a laboratory scale equipment and supercritical extraction equipment with a 1L capacity cell. The extracts were analyzed by GC–MS. where Carvacrol was the majority compound in both processes. The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation, with laboratory scale equipment and supercritical extraction equipment with a 1L capacity cell. In the case of steam distillation, a maximum yield of 4.1% on a dry weight basis was obtained, while the supercritical fluid extraction obtained provided a maximum yield of 2.8% on a dry weight basis at the same bed porosity (0.91). The costs that were obtained in a period of one year through. The process of extraction by steam distillation showed good results to obtained essential oil from L. graveolens. where it is observed that steam distillation is still the best option.

Empirical correlations of drug-and plant-based bioactive compound solubility in supercritical CO2: A comparative evaluation study

Over the last few decades, supercritical fluid extraction process has greatly assisted the search for more medicinal and therapeutic properties of bioactive compounds from an extensive range of botanical matrices. The yield of supercritical fluid extraction is often limited by the solubility of a targeted solute in the solvent and thus knowledge on solubility has become one of the fundamental variables of interest in the extraction process. However, the studies to evaluate the performance of density-based empirical models in estimating the solubility of different drug- and plant-based bioactive compounds were scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to gather the solubility data of 33 drugs and 40 plant-based bioactive compounds at varying temperatures and pressures and correlated them with 26 most widely used density-based models. The solubility data were critically analysed and reported from two perspectives: well-studied solubility-influencing factors such as pressure, temperature, and additional influencing factors what o such as molecular structure and weight. Then, a thorough evaluation of the existing empirical solubility models involving 26 predictive models for 73 bioactive compounds was performed. From the results and findings, it was evident that the 8-parameter Belghait et al. model showed the overall highest accuracies indicated by the lowest absolute average relative deviation of 7.42 %, 10.16 %, and 6.57 %, respectively for all bioactive compounds, drug-based bioactive compounds, and plant-based bioactive compounds. Belghait et al. model is also superior since its predictive performances are the best for 54 % of the bioactive compounds studied. Meanwhile, Kumar and Johnston's, Sung and Shim's, and Sodeifian et al's models demonstrated the best solubility predictions for 3-, 4-, and 6-parameter empirical models, respectively, for both plant and drug-based compounds. As the effects of pressure and temperature on solubility have widely acknowledged, this study also highlights the influence of molecular structure complexity on solubility. The main findings from this comparative evaluation proved that density-based models are efficacious in predicting solubility of both plant and drug-based bioactive compounds.

Orange Peel Waste as a Source of Bioactive Compounds and Valuable Products: Insights Based on Chemical Composition and Biorefining

Few valorization pathways have been implemented as alternatives to reduce the orange peel waste (OPW) disposal in landfills. OPW can be a source of income or economic savings in juice production factories since this waste is a potential source of value-added products (e.g., bioactive compounds) and energy vectors (e.g., biogas). Valorization alternatives should be based on (i) orange peel chemical composition, (ii) market analysis, and (iii) availability. Nevertheless, few literature papers have highlighted the chemical composition change caused by the different juice production schemes as a potential opportunity to obtain different value-added products and biorefinery schemes. Thus, the aims of this review paper are related to (i) reviewing different orange fruit processing pathways, (ii) analyzing several OPW chemical compositions reported in the open literature, (iii) providing a summary of OPW extraction pathways for bioactive compounds production, and (iv) evaluating the effect of applying different extraction methods on bioactive compound extraction performance. This review includes a description of the OPW matrix, market insights, packaging, physicochemical characterization, processing technologies, and suggested biorefinery approaches. Finally, different extraction methods for obtaining bioactive compounds from OPW are compared. As a result, the supercritical fluid extraction process has the highest extraction performance and selectivity since this method extracted a high amount of hesperidin (8.18 g/kg OPW db.). In conclusion, OPW is a source of bioactive compounds and valuable products that can be introduced in juice-producing factories to increase product portfolio or economic savings by changing the energy matrix.

Enzyme-Assisted Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Flavonoids from Apple Pomace (Malus×domestica).

Herein an enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (EA-SFE) was developed using the enzyme mix snailase to obtain flavonols and dihydrochalcones, subgroups of flavonoids, from globally abundant waste product apple pomace. Snailase, a commercially available mix of 20-30 enzymes, was successfully used to remove the sugar moieties from quercetin glycosides, kaempferol glycosides, phloridzin and 3-hydroxyphloridzin. The resulting flavonoid aglycones quercetin, kaempferol, phloretin and 3-hydroxyphloretin were extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) and minimum amounts of polar cosolvents. A sequential process of enzymatic hydrolysis and supercritical fluid extraction was developed, and the influence of the amount of snailase, pre-treatment of apple pomace, the time for enzymatic hydrolysis, the amount and type of cosolvent and the time for extraction, was studied. This revealed that even small amounts of snailase (0.25 %) provide a successful cleavage of sugar moieties up to 96 % after 2 h of enzymatic hydrolysis followed by supercritical fluid extraction with small amounts of methanol as cosolvent, leading up to 90 % of the total extraction yields after 1 h extraction time. Ultimately, a simultaneous process of EA-SFE successfully demonstrates the potential of snailase in scalable scCO2 extraction processes for dry and wet apple pomace with satisfactory enzyme activity, even under pressurized conditions.

Development of chemometric-assisted supercritical fluid extraction of effective and natural tyrosinase inhibitor from Syzygium aqueum leaves

Tyrosinase is a key enzyme in enzymatic browning, causing quality losses in food through the oxidation process. Thus, the discovery of an effective and natural tyrosinase inhibitor via green technology is of great interest to the global food market due to food security and climate change issues. In this study, Syzygium aqueum (S. aqueum) leaves, which are known to be rich in phenolic compounds (PC), were chosen as a natural source of tyrosinase inhibitor, and the effect of the sustainable, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process was evaluated. Response surface methodology-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (RSM-assisted SFE) was utilized to optimize the PCs extracted from S. aqueum. The highest amount of PC was obtained at the optimum conditions (55 °C, 3350 psi, and 70 min). The IC50 (661.815 μg/mL) of the optimized extract was evaluated, and its antioxidant activity (96.8 %) was determined. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) results reveal that 2′,6′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxychalcone (2,6-D4MC) (82.65 %) was the major PC in S. aqueum. Chemometric analysis indicated that 2,6-D4MC has similar chemical properties to the tyrosinase inhibitor control (kaempferol). The toxicity and physiochemical properties of the novel 2,6-D4MC from S. aqueum revealed that the 2,6-D4MC is safer than kaempferol as predicted via absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) evaluation. Enzyme kinetic analysis shows that the type of inhibition of the optimized extract is non-competitive inhibition with Km = 1.55 mM and Vmax = 0.017 μM/s. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis shows the effectiveness of S. aqueum as a tyrosinase inhibitor. The mechanistic insight of the tyrosinase inhibition using 2,6-D4MC was successfully calculated using density functional theory (DFT) and molecular docking approaches. The findings could have a significant impact on food security development by devising a sustainable and effective tyrosinase inhibitor from waste by-products that is aligned with the United Nation's SDG 2, zero hunger.

Selection of processing parameters for the integrated supercritical CO2 extraction from green tea leaves and extract impregnation onto starch-chitosan based films

The study aimed toward the development of biocompatible and biodegradable polymeric films (starch-chitosan and starch-chitosan-cyclodextrin) with biologically valuable green tea leaf extract using an environmentally friendly integrated process of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and supercritical solvent impregnation (SSI). The SFE-SSI process parameters were selected through the initial estimation of the SFE parameters effect (temperatures 35 and 70 °C and the addition of co-solvents ethanol, ethanol/water, and water). The present early-stage work showed that an increase in temperature increased extraction yield (from 0.9 to 4.2%) and caffeine content while it decreased polyphenolic and pigment content as well as antioxidant activity and extract loading onto films (from 7.1 to 0.1%). The addition of co-solvents to sc-CO2 had an adverse effect on extract yield, composition, and loading. The highest recorded total phenolic, flavonoid, chlorophyll A, and caffeine content in extracts were 136.5 mg GE/g, 22.7 mg RE/g, 8.1 mg/g, and 460.0 mg/g, respectively.

Integrated Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Pre-Formulation Process of Punica granatum L. Pericarp Polar Compounds.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a widely used fruit in the dietary supplement industry due to its richness in bioactive compounds. In this study, an experimental design was applied to optimize supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of polar compounds of interest (ellagic acid and punicalagins), known for antioxidant and skin care properties from pomegranate's pericarp. The effects of temperature, modifier percentage, and water additive percentage added in the modifier were explored through a Box-Behnken design, followed by a study of the extraction kinetics. The results indicated that 40 °C, 20% EtOH:H2O 80:20 v:v, with an extraction duration of 60 min allowed for the highest recovery of the above-mentioned molecules (19.59 mg/g). Due to solubilization issues encountered by the extract, a screening of cosmetic solvents was carried out to solubilize SFE pomegranate extracts and a composition of Gly:H2O 80:20 v:v was selected. Furthermore, an integrated SFE pre-formulation process of pomegranate pericarp extract (PPE) was elaborated. This allowed for the recovery of the extracts in cosmetic solvent, avoiding a full evaporation. Finally, the stability of the pre-formulated extracts was evaluated and showed high stability for over 3 months at 5 °C.

Fish waste oil extraction using supercritical CO2 extraction for biodiesel production: Mathematical, and kinetic modeling

The safe disposal of organic waste is a big environmental issue in landfills because of its huge generation volume. The main goal of this research is to determine the effect of supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) on the extraction of fish waste oil from discarded fish waste for producing biodiesel. Oil from fish waste was extracted using supercritical fluid extraction process using CO2 as a solvent. The supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) extraction was carried out with varying extraction pressure (10–40 MPa), temperature (32–80 °C), and treatment time (15–120 min). The maximum fish waste oil yield obtained was about 77.2 % at a temperature of 80 °C, a pressure of 30 MPa and a time of 60 min. The kinetics and thermodynamic behavior of the scCO2 extraction were calculated using Arrhenius law and Eyring theory, respectively. The estimated activation energy Ea value was 24.45 kJ/mol for the scCO2 extraction of discarded fish waste oil. Approximately 87 % of biodiesel was produced from scCO2 extracted oil via alkaline transesterification process with reaction temperature of 65 °C, NaOH loaded 1 wt%, fish oil to methanol molar ratio of 1:9, and treatment time of 3 h. The characterization of the produced biodiesel showed that its properties complied with the biodiesel standards (EN 14214 & ASTM D6751). The finding of this research revealed that the fish waste could be consumed as a biofuel feedstock.

Phenolic, tocopherol, and essential fatty acid-rich extracts from dandelion seeds: Chemical composition and biological activity

Dandelion is a sustainable biomass that has occasional use in the food and pharmaceutical industry. However, commercial use of its extracts is restricted by the lack of systematic information on safety, composition, and biological activity. To broaden dandelion use, the present study brings new knowledge on extracts from dandelion seeds that could find application as safe and functional food ingredients. The employed two-step supercritical fluid extraction process, followed by the conventional extraction, enabled the separation of extracts with increased content of phenolics, tocopherols, and essential fatty acids. Those compounds were found to be the major components of dandelion extracts, reaching high values up to 799 mg GE/g, 249 mg α-TE/g, and 75%, respectively. The extracts also contained significant amounts of flavonoids (up to 20.5 mg QE/g) and pigments (chlorophyll A up to 1.0 g/kg, chlorophyll B up to 0.3 g/kg, and carotenoids up to 0.1 g/kg). This study revealed new bioproducts that express strong antioxidant (reaching IC50 values up to 132.5 μg/mL) and antimicrobial activity (with minimum inhibitory concentrations up to 80.0 μg/mL). Among the tested 23 microbial strains, the extracts exhibited the strongest activity against food-borne pathogens Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore, the antitumor and antiviral activity of separated dandelion biological products was evaluated.

Technoeconomic analysis of supercritical fluid extraction process for recycling rare earth elements from neodymium iron boron magnets and fluorescent lamp phosphors

This study offers a comprehensive and rigorous analysis of the technoeconomics of supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) technology as applied to the recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from end-of-life neodymium iron boron magnets and fluorescent lamp phosphors. Drawing on an array of data sources including laboratory results, literature data, scaling models, scenario analysis, and sensitivity analysis, this study conducts a sound economic analysis of the SCFE process at an industrial scale. The study renders a detailed estimation of the costs and revenues associated with the process and identifies the primary factors that impact its profitability. The findings demonstrate that the SCFE of REEs from these feedstocks can be economically viable under certain circumstances, with the efficiency of extracting terbium, dysprosium, and neodymium and the price of their respective oxides emerging as key drivers of profitability. By providing valuable insights into the feasibility of the SCFE process for REEs recovery, this study informs future research and development activities in the field.

Comparison of Single Control Loop Performance Monitoring Methods

Well-performing control loops have an integral role in efficient and sustainable industrial production. Control performance monitoring (CPM) tools are necessary to establish further process optimization and preventive maintenance. Data-driven, model-free control performance monitoring approaches are studied in this research by comparing the performance of nine CPM methods in an industrially relevant process simulation. The robustness of some of the methods is considered with varying fault intensities. The methods are demonstrated on a simulator which represents a validated state-space model of a supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction process. The simulator is constructed with a single-input single-output unit controller for part of the process and a combination of relevant faults in the industry are introduced into the simulation. Of the demonstrated methods, Kullback–Leibler divergence, Euclidean distance, histogram intersection, and Overall Controller Efficiency performed the best in the first simulation case and could identify all the simulated fault scenarios. In the second case, integral-based methods Integral Squared Error and Integral of Time-weighted Absolute Error had the most robust performance with different fault intensities. The results highlight the applicability and robustness of some model-free methods and construct a solid foundation in the application of CPM in industrial processes.

Parametric analysis and machine learning for enhanced recovery of high-value sugar from date fruits using supercritical CO2 with co-solvents

The extraction of date sugar using supercritical extraction is a process that is still in its formative stages. In this study, a comprehensive parametric analysis of the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process using supercritical CO2 with water/ethanol as co-solvents was performed to achieve maximum recovery of date sugar extract. The results showed that the maximum total sugar content (TSC) was 70.45 ± 0.01 g/100 g of DFP. This was made up of 7.42 g/100 g fructose, 6.49 g/100 g glucose, and 56.54 g/100 g sucrose. This was attained with 15 v/v% water as co-solvent, 50 ℃, and 200 bar. In addition, machine learning with non-linear regression and artificial neural network (ANN) ensembles was used for TSC prediction. The ANN results showed a strong correlation between operating parameters and sugar recovery with a total R2 of 0.986 ± 0.010. Compared to conventional hot water extraction method (CHWE), the CO2-SFE process resulted in a 1.4-fold increase in TSC recovery and a 2.1-fold increase in organic acids recovery. CO2-SFE demonstrated comparable TSC results with a difference of only 1.2% when compared to the ultrasound-assisted extraction ‘'USAE’ method. The results of the detailed chemical analysis (HPLC and FT-IR) and morphological analysis (SEM) showed that the USAE and CO2-SFE were more efficient than CHWE. Supercritical extraction with co-solvents is particularly effective in recovering date sugar from date fruit, making it a desirable ingredient in a variety of food products.

Investigating Metal–Tributyl Phosphate Complexes during Supercritical Fluid Extraction of the NdFeB Magnet Using Density Functional Theory and X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy

Supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) is gaining significant interest as a green technology for the recycling of end-of-life waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) magnets, which contain large quantities of critical rare-earth elements such as neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium, are widely used in wind turbines and electric/hybrid vehicles. Hence, they are considered a promising secondary resource for these elements when they reach their end-of-life. Previously, the SCFE process was developed for recycling WEEE, including NdFeB; however, the process mechanism remains unexplored. Here, density functional theory, followed by extended X-ray absorption fine structure and X-ray absorption near-edge structure analyses, are utilized to determine the structural coordination and interatomic interactions of complexes formed during the SCFE of the NdFeB magnet. The results indicate that Fe(II), Fe(III), and Nd(III) form Fe(NO3)2(TBP)2, Fe(NO3)3(TBP)2, and Nd(NO3)3(TBP)3 complexes, respectively. This theory-guided investigation elucidates the complexation chemistry and mechanism during the SCFE process by rigorously determining the structural models.

Recent Advances in Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Pigments, Lipids and Bioactive Compounds from Microalgae.

Supercritical CO2 extraction is a green method that combines economic and environmental benefits. Microalgae, on the other hand, is a biomass in abundance, capable of providing a vast variety of valuable compounds, finding applications in the food industry, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and biofuels. An extensive study on the existing literature concerning supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of microalgae has been carried out focusing on carotenoids, chlorophylls, lipids and fatty acids recovery, as well as the bioactivity of the extracts. Moreover, kinetic models used to describe SFE process and experimental design are included. Finally, biomass pretreatment processes applied prior to SFE are mentioned, and other extraction methods used as benchmarks are also presented.

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study on the supercritical fluid extraction process

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study on the supercritical fluid extraction process