Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis Diardi Research Articles

Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi (Cuvier, 1823) (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) occupancy in Borneo: results of a pilot vehicle spotlight transect survey

The Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi on Borneo is threatened principally by deforestation for oil palm plantations and the indiscriminate use of illegal trapping. Sunda Clouded Leopard populations are decreasing across their range, and the species has been categorised as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Despite the persistence of threats and numerous surveys in recent years, information on its ecology is still limited. Most studies to date have relied on the use of camera traps as their primary sampling tool, as it is challenging otherwise to gather data on Sunda Clouded Leopards. This study aimed to test the feasibility of estimating the Sunda Clouded Leopard occupancy using a different approach. We conducted vehicle spotlight transect surveys in a mixed-use forest reserve and logging concession in Sabah. We drove a cumulative total of 8,433 km of transects at night and documented the occurrence of Sunda Clouded Leopards in eight out of 31 predetermined long-distance transects, yielding a relatively low naïve occupancy rate (nO = 0.26). When accounting for imperfect detection (ρ = 0.15), null occupancy of Sunda Clouded Leopards appeared much higher (ᴪ = 0.55), though our parameter estimates lacked relative precision. Despite this, our results suggest there may be potential to further refine and adapt a basic, cost-effective monitoring approach in a local mixed-use reserve with the help of concession managers and additional improvements to study design. We caution, however, that not all study sites may be suited for this type of approach and strongly advise the development of pilot studies to evaluate their overall feasibility.

Ecology, occurrence and distribution of wild felids in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo

AbstractSarawak is the largest state in the megadiverse country of Malaysia. Its rich biodiversity is threatened by land-use change and hunting, with mammalian carnivores particularly affected. Data on the ecology, occurrence and distribution of small carnivores are crucial to inform their effective conservation, but no large-scale assessments have previously been conducted in Sarawak. Here we examine the status of the five species of felids in Sarawak based on data from camera-trap studies over 17 years (May 2003–February 2021) across 31 study areas, including protected areas of various sizes, production forests and forest matrix within oil palm plantations. Felids were detected at 39% of 845 camera stations. The marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata and Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi had higher probabilities of occurrence in protected than unprotected areas, and vice versa for the leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis and bay cat Catopuma badia. The marbled and bay cats were mostly diurnal, and the leopard cat was predominantly nocturnal; activity patterns did not substantively differ between protected and unprotected sites. The probabilities of occurrence of marbled and bay cats increased with greater distance from roads. The leopard cat and flat-headed cat Prionailurus planiceps were more likely, and the clouded leopard less likely, to occur near rivers. Flat-headed cats preferred peat swamp forest, bay cats lowland forest, and marbled cats and clouded leopards occurred in both lowland and montane forest. Felids may tolerate higher elevations to avoid anthropogenic disturbance; therefore, it is critical to preserve lowland and mid-elevation habitats that provide refugia from climate change and the destruction of lowland habitat.

Male residency of Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi (Cuvier, 1823) (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) in a peat swamp forest, Indonesian Borneo

The Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi is the apex predator on the island of Borneo, yet little is known of its ecology. We document the length of residency of male Sunda Clouded Leopards in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Over 10 years, camera trap data have been obtained in the Sebangau peat swamp forest in a study area of ~ 105km2. We identified 11 individuals (eight males, one female, and two with unknown sex), from 152 notionally independent photographs. On average, males remained in the study area for 39.3 months (SE 8.3), or 3.3 years (SE 0.7), ranging from less than a month of residency up to 71 months. Females were infrequently recorded, possibly as a result of human disturbance and/or high male densities. Our results reveal that even a 10-year dataset is inadequate to answer some basic ecological questions, emphasising the importance of long-term monitoring of this species.

Sunda clouded leopardNeofelis diardidensities and human activities in the humid evergreen rainforests of Sumatra

AbstractMost species of wild felids are threatened, but for many little is known about their status in the wild. For the cryptic and elusive Vulnerable Sunda clouded leopardNeofelis diardi, key metrics such as abundance and occupancy have been challenging to obtain. We conducted an intensive survey for this species on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. We deployed camera traps across four study areas that varied in elevation and threats, for a total of 28,404 trap nights, resulting in 114 independent clouded leopard photographs, in which we identified 18 individuals. Using a Bayesian spatially explicit capture–recapture analysis, we estimated clouded leopard density to be 0.8–2.4 individuals/100 km2. The highest predicted occurrence of people was at lower altitudes and closer to the forest edge, where we categorized more than two-thirds of people recorded by camera traps as bird poachers, 12.5% each as ungulate/tiger poachers and non-timber collectors, and < 2% as fishers. Our findings provide important insights into the status of this little known species in Sumatra. We recommend that the large volume of camera-trap data from other Sumatran landscapes be used for an island-wide assessment of the clouded leopard population, to provide up-to-date and reliable information for guiding future conservation planning.

Counting Sunda clouded leopards with confidence: incorporating individual heterogeneity in density estimates

AbstractEven with intensive sampling effort, data often remain sparse when estimating population density of elusive species such as the Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi. An inadequate number of recaptures can make it difficult to account for heterogeneity in detection parameters. We used data from large-scale camera-trapping surveys in three forest reserves in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, to (1) examine whether a high-density camera-trap network increases the number of recaptures for females, which tend to be more difficult to detect, thus improving the accuracy of density estimates; (2) compare density estimates from models incorporating individual heterogeneity in detection parameters with estimates from the null model to evaluate its potential bias; and (3) investigate how the size of the camera-trap grid affects density and movement estimates. We found that individual heterogeneity could not be incorporated in the single-site data analysis and only conservative null model estimates could be generated. However, aggregating data across study sites enabled us to account for individual heterogeneity and we estimated densities of 1.27–2.82 individuals/100 km2, 2–3 times higher than estimates from null models. In light of these findings, it is possible that earlier studies underestimated population density. Similar densities found in well-managed forest and recently selectively logged forest suggest that Sunda clouded leopards are relatively resilient to forest disturbances. Our analysis also revealed that camera-trapping grids for Sunda clouded leopard density estimations should cover large areas (c. 250 km2), although smaller grids could be appropriate if density or detectability are higher.

Small cat surveys: 10 years of data from Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo

We present an update on the photographic detections from camera traps and the activity patterns of Borneo’s four small cats, namely, Sunda Leopard Cat Prionailurus javanensis, Flat-headed Cat P. planiceps, Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata, and Bay Cat Catopuma badia, at two sites in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Camera trap survey data of 10 years (2008–2018) from the first site in Sebangau provide details about the temporal partitioning of these small cats from each other but overlap with Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi. The activity of Flat-headed Cat was higher after midnight and that of Leopard Cat at night with no clear preference before or after midnight. The Marbled Cat is predominantly diurnal, but the remaining three cats have flexible activity periods. While limited data are available from Rungan, the second site, we confirmed the presence of all four small cat species found on Borneo, though we have insufficient data to comment on the Bay Cat. The cat sightings, however, are intermittent and may reflect the unprotected status of this forest. Leopard Cats appear relatively unaffected by habitat disturbance based on encounter rates on camera traps. Conservationists, both NGOs and the government, must pay particular attention to specialists like Flat-headed Cats and Bay Cats when assessing habitat suitability for long-term cat conservation.

Deconstructed cat communities: Quantifying the threat to felids from prey defaunation

AbstractAimDefaunation, the emptying of ecosystems of fauna, has been highlighted as a likely threat to the conservation of carnivores, but the magnitude of this threat has yet to be quantified. We quantify the potential threat defaunation presents to wild felids.LocationGlobal.MethodsFor the 32 wild felids that feed primarily on mammals, we used 5,330 prey records from 237 published sources to compile a new diet dataset, FelidDIET. This dataset was used to determine the relative importance of mammalian species as prey for each felid. These data were used to quantify the relationship between felid and prey species‐richness, and to estimate the potential threat to wild felids from the loss of their prey.ResultsOur analyses reveal that models that include adjusted prey species‐richness as a predictor of felid‐richness outperform those with less precise measures of prey‐richness (potential prey‐richness and total mammal‐richness). This is true both when examined collectively and when split into those felids that prey upon large‐bodied prey and those that prey upon small‐bodied prey. For seven felid species, including six large felids (over 15 kg), 33% or more of their primary prey‐species are threatened. Of most concern is the Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi, for which 66.0% of its primary prey‐species are threatened. In total, 57.6% of large felids’ primary prey‐species are threatened or declining, compared with 26.5% for small felids. Large felids are particularly vulnerable to primary prey decline in Indo‐Malaya and East and Central Africa.Main conclusionsOur findings indicate that imminent prey loss is likely to have substantial negative effects on large felids, many of which are already highly threatened. Considering the trophic cascades associated with large predators, the threat to large felids through the loss of prey diversity presents an ecosystem‐scale threat.

Bringing clarity to the clouded leopard Neofelis diardi: first density estimates from Sumatra

AbstractWe use data from camera-trap surveys for tigers Panthera tigris in combination with spatial capture–recapture models to provide the first density estimates for the Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi on Sumatra. Surveys took place during 2004–2007 in the Kerinci landscape. Densities were 0.385–1.278 per 100 km2. We found no statistically significant differences in density among four study sites or between primary and mixed forest. Because the data sets are too small to account for differences in detection parameters between sexes, density is probably underestimated. Estimates are comparable to previous estimates of 1–2 per 100 km2 from the lowlands of central Sabah, on Borneo. Data limitations suggest that camera-trap surveys for Sunda clouded leopards require traps spaced more closely, to increase the chance of recaptures at different traps. Nevertheless, these first density estimates for clouded leopards on Sumatra provide a benchmark for measuring future conservation impact on an island that is undergoing rapid forest loss.

Activity patterns and temporal avoidance by prey in response to Sunda clouded leopard predation risk

AbstractLittle is known about the activity patterns of Bornean ungulates, or the temporal interactions of these species with the Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi. In this study, we use photographic capture data to quantify the activity patterns for the Sunda clouded leopard and six potential prey species: bearded pig Sus barbatus, Bornean yellow muntjac Muntiacus atherodes, red muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, lesser mouse deer Tragulus kanchil, greater mouse deer Tragulus napu, and sambar deer Rusa unicolor, and to calculate the overlap in activity patterns between these species. This is the first insight into the temporal interactions between the Sunda clouded leopard and its potential prey. Sunda clouded leopards' activity patterns overlapped most with those of sambar deer and greater mouse deer. In the absence of clouded leopards, we report a significant difference in activity patterns for bearded pigs which show greater nocturnal activity in the absence of this predator. This suggests that bearded pigs may be prey species for clouded leopards and they are capable of altering their activity pattern in response to this risk.

Density of the Vulnerable Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi in two commercial forest reserves in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo

AbstractRecently the Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi was recognized as a separate species distinct from the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa of mainland Asia. Both species are categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Little is known about the newly identified species and, in particular, information from forests outside protected areas is scarce. Here we present one of the first density estimates calculated with spatial capture–recapture models using camera-trap data. In two commercial forest reserves in Sabah (both certified for their sustainable management practices) the density of the Sunda clouded leopard was estimated to be c. 1 per 100 km2 (0.84±SE 0.42 and 1.04±SE 0.58). The presence of the Sunda clouded leopard in such forests is encouraging for its conservation but additional studies from other areas, including protected forests, are needed to compare and evaluate these densities.