Sum Of Water Research Articles

Clusters of solvated ferrous ion in water–ammonia mixture: Structures and noncovalent interactions

The behavior of metal ions is commonly studied in pure solvent although, in our daily life, these metals are involved in mixtures of solvents. In the present study, we investigated structures, relative stabilities and temperature dependance of solvated ferrous ion in water–ammonia mixture solvent at 0K and at various temperatures ranging from 25K to 400K. All the calculations are performed at the MN15 level of theory associated with the aug-cc-pVDZ basis set. For deep understanding of binding patterns in solvated ferrous ion in water–ammonia mixture solvent, noncovalent interactions are presented based on the QTAIM analysis using AIMAll. Our results prove that the ferrous ion is more stable when it is solvated by ammonia instead of water. In addition, hydrogen bonds are weakened by the presence of ammonia molecules. The temperature dependence of the different obtained geometries indicates that from s=6 (s is the sum of water and ammonia molecules around the ferrous ion), when the number of water molecules is almost equal to that of ammonia, the structures with coordination number 5 are dominant. However, the coordination number is six when there are a maximum water molecules (rich water solution) or maximum ammonia molecules (rich ammonia solution) around the ferrous ion (for s≥6). The QTAIM analysis shows that there are two coordination bondings and four hydrogen bondings. Furthermore, it is found that the Fe2+⋯N coordination bondings are stronger than the Fe2+⋯O confirming that the ferrous ion prefers to be solvated by ammonia instead of water.

The Water Footprint of Oyster mushroom (<em>Pleurotus ostreatus</em>) Cultivation under Small-scale Polybag Farming Conditions in Sri Lanka

Purpose: Water footprint (WFP) is a widely used environmental indicator to compare and identify the strategies for better water use efficiency. The Objectives of the present study were to calculate and analyze the WFP of Oyster mushroom cultivation under small-scale farming conditions in Sri Lanka. Research Method: Water footprint was estimated as the sum of water used for preparing the mushroom growing substrate and the on-farm water requirement for the production of a ton of mushrooms. Production parameters and on-farm water usage of three small-scale Oyster mushroom farms were recorded. Findings: WFPs of growing substrates were low (591 - 642 m3/ton) and varied within a narrow range. The main on-farm water-consuming activities were the preparation of growing media, water for sterilization of media, spraying of water during the growing cycle, floor cleaning, and laborer’s water consumption. WFP of mushroom cultivation under the conditions specified in this study was 1181 m3/ton. Being the largest component, mushroom growing media accounted for 95% of the WFP. On-farm water requirement was found to be as low as 4.4 L/kg. WFP of mushrooms was lower than those reported for eggs, broiler meat, pork, beef, lentil, and soy meat. Nevertheless, the WFP of mushrooms, when expressed per unit of calorie or protein was higher than that of egg and soy meat. Originality/ Value: As the first reported WFP calculation for mushrooms in Sri Lanka, this study identified mushrooms as a water-efficient food item. Improvement in yield and shortening of the growing cycle were identified as the means of reducing the WFP of mushroom cultivation in Sri Lanka.

Assessment of 14C-prosulfocarb dissipation mechanism in soil after amendment and its impact on the microbial community

Adding organic amendments to soil could modify the bioavailability of herbicides and lead to changes in the microbial community’s activity and structure. The objective here was to study the dissipation and total mass balance of 14C-labeled prosulfocarb applied at two rates (4 and 10 mg kg-1) in unamended and green compost (GC)-amended soil. Soil dehydrogenase activity (DHA) and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profile analysis were determined to evaluate the effect of herbicide residues on microbial community's activity and structure over the dissipation period. The dissipation rate of prosulfocarb decreased after soil amendment due to higher herbicide adsorption by the amended soil. The 50% dissipation time (DT50) increased 1.7 times in the unamended soil when the concentration of prosulfocarb increased 2.5 times. The mass balance results indicate that the sum of water and organic extractable fractions represented the highest amounts up to the dissipation of 50% 14C-prosulfocarb. The 14C-herbicide was then mainly mineralized (up to 11%-31%) or formed non-extractable residues (up to 35%-44%). The amount of 14C-prosulfocarb residues extracted with methanol was slightly higher in amended soils than in unamended ones. 14C-prosulfocarb mineralization was higher in unamended soils than in amended ones. The formation of non-extractable residues was continuous, and increased over time. Soil DHA decreased in the unamended soil and was maintained in the GC-amended soil at the end of the assay. The microbial structure was barely disturbed over the prosulfocarb degradation process, although it was clearly influenced by the application of GC. The results obtained reveal the influence organic amendment has on herbicide bioavailability to decrease its biodegradation and buffer its impact on the soil microbial structure.

Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: Drinking for Two?

The primary aim of this cross-sectional survey was to assess the total fluid intake (TFI; sum of drinking water and all other fluids) and the intake of water and all other types of beverages in a sample of pregnant and breastfeeding women representative of Java-Island, Indonesia. Therefore, 299 pregnant and 296 breastfeeding women completed a 7-day fluid-specific record. A secondary aim was to estimate the total water intake (TWI; sum of water from fluids and food moisture), and one 24-h recall was performed to determine water intake from food moisture. The median TFI of pregnant and breastfeeding women were 2,250 (1,800-2,800) and 2,360 (1,954-2,968) mL/day, respectively. The largest contributor to TFI was water (72 and 77% for pregnant/breastfeeding women, respectively). Pregnant women to the extent of 42% and 54% of breastfeeding women did not reach the adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids. In pregnant and breastfeeding women, the median water intake from foods was 592 and 613 mL/day, representing 21 and 20% of TWI. Concluding that a high proportion of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects did not reach the AI of water from fluid, it seems important to put in place actions such as providing education materials and ensuring access to safe water. Moreover, future surveys should dedicate attention to the assessment of fluid intake and hydration status among pregnant and breastfeeding women in other countries.

Total fluid intake assessed with a 7-day fluid record versus a 24-h dietary recall: a crossover study in Indonesian adolescents and adults

Purpose To compare total fluid intake (TFI), defined as the sum of water and all other fluid types, assessed with a 24-h dietary (food and fluid) recall with mean TFI assessed with a 7-day fluid-specific record among adolescents and adults.Methods This repeated cross-sectional study compared TFI as assessed by two fluid assessment instruments using a crossover approach. 290 adolescents (17.3 ± 0.8 years, 50 % boys) and 289 adults (43 ± 9.3 years, 50 % men) from Indonesia completed the study.ResultsSignificant correlations were observed between fluid intake assessed with the 24-h recall and the 7-day fluid record (r = 0.333; p < 0.001). The Bland–Altman method, however, showed an underestimation (bias) of mean TFI by a 24-h recall when compared with the 7-day fluid record [mean difference (95 % CI) −382 mL (−299, −465); p < 0.001]. The mean difference also increased with increasing TFI: Mean difference for the lowest and highest quartiles of TFI was 139 versus −1265 mL/day. The 7-day fluid record recorded two (95 % CI −1.9, −2.4; p < 0.0001) extra drinking acts compared with the 24-h recall, whereas the mean volume per drinking act was significantly higher with the 24-h recall [mean difference (95 % CI) 39 mL (31, 47); p < 0.001].ConclusionCompared with a 7-day fluid record, a 24-h dietary recall significantly underestimated TFI. Subjects recalled two less drinking acts, while estimating the volume consumed per drinking act to be larger. Since the adequate intakes for total water intake are based on median intakes observed in national surveys that most frequently used the 24-h recall method, they may potentially be underestimated.

Total Carbohydrate Determinations in USDA's National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

Total carbohydrate values for foods in the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (SR) are determined as the difference between 100 and the sum of water, protein, total lipid, ash, and alcohol content. Under the National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program, a NIH‐USDA collaboration, foods are nationally sampled and analyzed for dietary fiber (enzymatic gravimetric methods AOAC 985.29 or 991.43 (2010)), individual sugars; liquid chromatography (AOAC 982.14) or previously, AOAC methods (2010) with either high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or gas‐liquid chromatography (GLC)), and starch (enzymatic colorimetric AOAC 966.11 (2010)) or a polarometric method (The Feedings Stuffs Regulations 1982). Component analyses are performed separately and reflect the analytical variability inherent to each measurement process, so the sum of these carbohydrate fractions may not equal carbohydrate‐by‐difference (CBD). CBD values were compared to the sum of analytical carbohydrate fractions (total sugars, starch, and dietary fiber) for about 1,000 foods (e.g., baked products, cereal grains, fruits and vegetables) in SR; for commercially processed mixed dishes (with 6.1‐76.3g carbohydrate/100g), the sum of carbohydrate fractions was 91‐109% of CBD. In foods containing medium‐chain carbohydrates (e.g., dextrins, non‐digestible carbohydrates other than the mono‐ and di‐saccharides), the analyzed sum and CBD frequently differ. Analyses of these carbohydrates, included in some newer definitions of dietary fiber, “normalization” techniques, and ongoing analyses of carbohydrate fractions are essential.

Effects of phosphorus-based application of animal manure compost on the yield of silage corn and on soil phosphorus accumulation in an upland Andosol in Japan

Animal manure contains significant amounts of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) that can be utilized as fertilizer. However, manure application rates are generally set to meet crop N demand, which results in excess P application which increases the risk of P loss into bodies of water. We examined the application method of manure compost based on crop P demand on the dry matter yield of silage corn (Zea mays L. var. indentata), on nutrient uptake and on soil P accumulation in an upland Andosol with a high P-fixing capacity. Cattle and poultry manure composts (CMC and PMC) with different P solubility were applied to meet the crop’s N requirements (N-based application) or P requirements (P-based application) in 3 consecutive years. Supplemental N was applied using polyolefin-coated urea in the P-based treatments. The dry matter yields and nutrient uptakes of silage corn in the P-based CMC and PMC application systems were similar to those in the corresponding N-based systems. The average relative efficiency of N in CMC (33%) was close to the predicted value (30%) during the study. On the other hand, the relative efficiency of N in PMC (42%) was higher than the predicted value (28%). The average relative efficiency of P from CMC and PMC was 109% and 50%, respectively. These were higher than the predicted values based on the available P proportion (the sum of water- and sodium bicarbonate-soluble P) for CMC (78%) and PMC (34%), indicating that the available P fraction in the manure composts was more effective than that in P fertilizer for corn growth or that the other P fractions were also effective for corn. P-based manure compost application lowered the soil P accumulation to between 41 and 43% of the value in the N-based accumulation (versus a value of between 31 and 40% of that value for soil Truog-P). Compared to N-based manure compost application, P-based manure compost application with supplemental N fertilizer produced similar dry matter yields of corn and suppressed soil P accumulation in the upland Andosol field.

Comparing the use of the traditional and repeated-sampling-approach of the 137Cs technique in soil erosion estimation

Two approaches have been used in the literature to estimate soil erosion using 137Cs measurements. The traditional-approach requires only one set of samples and uses a single reference 137Cs level, determined off-site, for the whole site. The repeated-sampling-approach requires two sets of samples and uses point-specific values, the 137Cs inventories of the first set of samples, as the reference 137Cs levels. No study has been carried out to investigate the advantages and limitations of these two approaches. In this study, a hay-pasture site, located in Ontario, Canada, with a short period of corn ( Zea mays L.) production was examined. Total erosion was estimated using both the traditional- and repeated-sampling-approach. Water and tillage erosion were assessed using established models. The sum of water and tillage erosion served as the model-predicted total soil erosion, assuming negligible wind erosion. The site was classified into five landform elements and the 137Cs-estimated and model-predicted erosion rates were grouped into the landform elements. It was determined that when the reference 137Cs level is accurate, the traditional-approach can produce accurate soil erosion rates, providing that errors due to the conversion models are negligible. However, when there is a large error in the reference 137Cs level, the estimated erosion rates are biased. The repeated-sampling-approach eliminates the bias of reference 137Cs level but has higher random errors. However, the random errors can be reduced by taking multiple samples and using the spatially averaged erosion rate for data interpretation. Landscape segmentation based on topography provides a useful landform division for describing erosion processes and, therefore, practical units for grouping the sampling points. In addition, repeated-sampling-approach also has many advantages due to a shortened time period. In particular, the uncertainties of simple conversion models can be greatly reduced.

Surface runoff phosphorus (P) loss in relation to phosphatase activity and soil P fractions in Florida sandy soils under citrus production

Phosphorus losses by surface runoff from agricultural lands have been of public concern due to increasing P contamination to surface waters. Five representative commercial citrus groves (C1–C5) located in South Florida were studied to evaluate the relationships between P fractions in soils, surface runoff P, and soil phosphatase activity. A modified Hedley P sequential fractionation procedure was employed to fractionate soil P. Soil P consisted of mainly organically- and Ca/Mg-bound P fractions. The organically-bound P (biological P, sum of organic P in the water, NaHCO 3 and NaOH extracts) was dominant in the acidic sandy soils from the C2 and C3 sites (18% and 24% of total soil P), whereas the Ca/Mg-bound P (HCl-extractable P) accounted for 45–60% of soil total P in the neutral and alkaline soils (C1, C4 and C5 soils). Plant-available P (sum of water and NaHCO 3 extractable P fractions) ranged from 27 to 61 mg P kg −1 and decreased in the order of C3>C4>C1>C2>C5. The mean total P concentrations (TP) in surface runoff water samples ranged from 0.51 to 2.64 mg L −1. Total P, total dissolved P (TDP), and PO 4 3−-P in surface runoff were significantly correlated with soil biological P and plant-available P forms ( p<0.01), suggesting that surface runoff P was directly derived from soil available P pools, including H 2O– and NaHCO 3– extractable inorganic P, water-soluble organic P, and NaHCO 3- and NaOH-extractable organic P fractions, which are readily mineralized by soil microorganisms and/or enzyme mediated processes. Soil neutral (55–190 mg phenol kg −1 3 h −1) and natural (measured at soil pH) phosphatase activities (77–295 mg phenol kg −1 3 h −1) were related to TP, TDP, and PO 4 3−-P in surface runoff, and plant-available P and biological P forms in soils. These results indicate that there is a potential relationship between soil P availability and phosphatase activities, relating to P loss by surface runoff. Therefore, the neutral and natural phosphatase activities, especially the natural phosphatase activity, may serve as an index of surface runoff P loss potential and soil P availability.

A Comparison of Two Methods and the Effect of Cooking Time on the Extractability of Pectin from the Cell Walls of Cooking Banana

Two methods to prepare pectin samples from cooking bananas were evaluated by a comparison of pectin molecular weights, levels and solubility. The hot alcohol refluxing method (referred to as hot AIR) caused a reduction in the molecular weight of chelator-soluble pectin in raw banana pulp compared to the method that used cold phenol–acetic acid–water (PAW) to extract the pectin. In addition, the use of hot alcohol resulted in a more than fourfold increase in the amount of water-soluble pectin, and nearly twofold decrease in both chelator- and Na2CO3-soluble pectin in the raw banana pulp tissues compared to the cold PAW method. Using the hot AIR for cell wall fractionation studies to correlate the pectin changes to the thermal softening of banana could lead to misleading conclusions. However, the total content (sum of water-, CDTA- and Na2CO3-soluble pectins) was not altered by these two different preparation methods.

Protease stabilization by highly concentrated anionic surfactant mixtures

AbstractWe have found that anionic surfactants such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) can solubilize proteases in a substantially nonaqueous environment without loss of proteolytic activity. Moreover, in mixtures of anionic and nonionic surfactants with a moderate amount of water (water less than 30 wt%), controlled levels of LAS and water solubilize proteases; yet, in these concentrated surfactant mixtures, enzymes maintain their activity for extended periods. Experimental design techniques have been used to delineate the relationship between protease stability and the water, pH and anionic surfactant levels in these surfactant concentrates. As the sum of water and LAS levels is increased, maximum enzyme stability is observed, after which stability falls off. At low water and LAS levels (sum of both &lt;20%), protease solubility is low, while at high levels of water and LAS (sum of LAS and water &gt;45%), denaturation predominates. Additionally, we have developed a new and simple method to predict protease stability by which a synthetic peptide is used to measure protease activity directly in the surfactant concentrate. From the application of this new technique to our system and to commercial liquid detergent formulations, it is apparent that water facilitates the loss of activity of proteases in surfactant concentrates by increasing the rate of autolysis.

Development and evaluation of a regression equation of prediction for fat-free soft tissue in heterogenous populations of cattle.

Regression equations to predict kilograms of fat-free soft tissue (the sum of water and protein from chemical analyses) were developed from data collected on 526 steers and heifers. Straightbred animals representing Angus, Braunvieh, Charolais, Gelbvieh, Hereford, Limousin, Pinzgauer, Red Poll, and Simmental breeds of cattle contributed to the data set. Cattle ranged in slaughter weight and age from approximately 350 to 575 kg and from 13 to 23 mo, respectively. Diets (100% ground alfalfa, 67% ground alfalfa and 33% ground corn or 33% ground alfalfa and 67% ground corn) were cross-classified with breed and sex. Estimative traits included in the equation were warm carcass weight, fat depth at the 12th rib, and body impedance. Carcass soft-tissue samples were taken for determination of chemical constituents. The prediction equation accounted for 94% of the variation in fat-free soft tissue of the carcass. Adjusting for breed-sex-diet contemporary groups increased the R2 value by 2% units. The prediction model was evaluated using data collected on 65 steers sired by Charolais or by Hereford bulls at the Ft Keogh Livestock and Range Research Laboratory (Miles City, MT). Postweaning feeding strategies and slaughter ages varied among these animals. Carcass weight, back fat depth, and resistive impedance measures were recorded. Carcass soft-tissue samples were taken for determination of chemical constituents. Values of estimator variables recorded at Ft. Keogh were used in the regression equation to predict fat-free soft tissue for each animal. The values for kilogram of fat-free soft tissue determined from chemical analysis were regressed on predicted fat-free soft tissue. the results indicate that fat-free soft tissue of carcasses can be accurately predicted using estimative traits that do not diminish carcass value.

New and simple equations to estimate the energy and fat contents and energy density of humans in sickness and health.

Two formulas were derived to estimate the energy content of the human body which use only body mass, total body water by 3H2O dilution space and body minerals assessed by anthropometry. The formulas were tested in a body composition database of 561 patients and 151 normal volunteers using established metabolizable energy values for protein, fat and glycogen. Total body protein was determined by in vivo neutron activation analysis (IVNAA), body water by dilution of tritium and body minerals from skeletal frame size. Body glycogen was assumed to be 14.6% of the mineral component. Body fat was obtained by difference, body mass less the sum of water, protein, minerals and glycogen. The standard deviation in the estimate of body energy content was 30 MJ or 4.1% of the energy content of reference man. Two formulas for body energy content were derived by regression with body mass, total body water and body minerals or height. Two formulas for energy density and formulas for percentage body fat were similarly derived.

TAUTOMERISM OF 4-PHENYLAZO-1-NAPHTHOL IN ORGANIC SOLVENT-WATER MIXTURES

The azo-hydrazone tautomerism of 4-phenylazo-l-naphthol (PAN) in the mixtures of water and organic solvents (alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol and t-butanol, ethylene glycol and glycerine, and nonhydroxylic solvents such as dioxane and acetone) was studied spectrophotometrically. The equilibrium constants (KT) of the tautomerism were obtained. The effects of the composition of the mixture solvent on the KT value were examined. The KT values were found to increase with an increase in water contents in the mixtures. In monohydric primary alcohol-water mixtures, the KT values were smaller in the mixtures of less polar alcohols. In ethylene glycol- and glycerine-water mixtures, the KT values were supposed to be dependent upon the sum of water and OH concentrations. In nonhydroxylic solvent-water mixtures log KT was proportional to the water concentration in the mixtures. In the mixtures of predominantly aqueous compositions the KT values sharply increase with an increase of aqueous compositions. These results can be explained by assuming that the KT values are not dependent upon the bulk solvent properties but dependent upon the microenvironmental properties of PAN molecules. The tautomerism of PAN in the mixtures is almost athermic. The results suggest that the disperse dye in organic solvent-water mixtures is supposed to be in the more hydrophobic environment than the bulk.

Permeability of microsomal membranes isolated from rat liver.

Water compartments, permeability, and the possible active translocation of various substances in rat liver microsomes were studied by using radioactive compounds and ultracentrifugation. The total water of the microsomal pellet, 3.4 microl/mg dry weight, is the sum of water in the extramicrosomal and intramicrosomal spaces, or 56 and 44%, respectively. Sucrose space accounts for 77% of the intramicrosomal water and the hydration water approximately 14%, leaving almost no sucrose-impermeable space when using the ultracentrifugation approach. With increasing sucrose concentration, microsomes do not show an osmotic response. The intramicrosomal water decreases greatly in the presence of Cs(+) and Mg(++) in rough but not in smooth microsomes. Uncharged substances of molecular weight of up to at least 600 freely penetrate microsomal membranes, which already become impermeable to charged substances at a molecular weight of 90. These substances also induce an osmotic response. The vesicles can be made permeable to charged substances after water treatment and cooling, which, however, does not increase glucose-6-phosphatase and inosine diphosphatase (IDPase) activities, and these enzymes can still be activated by deoxycholate. IDPase, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-cytochrome c reductase, and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-dependent hydroxylation reactions, performed in vitro, also disproved the hypothesis of an accumulation of charged substances inside of vesicles of being a major pathway. The products of the enzymic reactions as well as the glucuronidated form of a hydroxylated product can be recovered on the cytoplasmic side of membranes, and little accumulation occurs in the intravesicular compartment.

Studies on the Chemical Composition of the Central Nervous System in Relation to the Effects of X-Irradiation and of Disturbances in Water and Salt Balance: I. Chemical Composition of Various Specific Areas and Structures of the Brain in the Dog and the Monkey

A method is described in which a train of chemical analyses can be performed on 0.5- to l.0-gm samples of brain tissues whereby water, total lipid, total nitrogen, chloride, sodium, potassium, and magnesium can be determined in succession. In 19 normal dogs and 2 normal monkeys, the gray matter and caudate nucleus were found to have water (about 80%) ana lipid (4 to 5%) contents quite different from those of the white matter (water 68%, lipid 17%). The sum of water and lipid in these as well as in other tissues (corpus callosum, thalamus, medulla oblongata) was between 83% and 86%. The gray and white matter had the same concentrations of Na (79) and K (125), whereas the caudate nucleus had lower concentrations (Na 68, K 113), all in miluivalents per kilogram of H2O. The chloride space of issues analyzed ranged from 26 to 31% of the fresh weight, or 37 to 42% of the total water. The variance of the values for the chemical constituents determined in different animals was quite small, thus permitting the comparison of these normal data with those obtained under pathological conditions. Most of the variance observed was probably due to true individual variations, sincemore » in the same animals the results obtained on the two sides of the brain showed very good agreement and the water contents of various parts of the brain showed definite correlation.« less

Water Determination in Oil-Contaminated “Freon-12” by Infrared Spectrophotometry

Modification of Benning's infrared method permits determination of water in Freon-12 refrigerant contaminated by as much as 1% oil. Quantity of oil is determined at the 2.34μ H band. The sum of water and the water equivalent value of oil is determined at 2 67μ. Difference between these two is the true moisture content of Freon-12®.

The peculiar behaviour of the sodium‐uranyl triple acetates

AbstractBy a determination of the water of crystallization in the triple acetates of Na, Mg and UO2 (Blanchetière) or Na, Zn and UO2 (Barber and Kolthoff), it has been found that six molecules of water of crystallization are taken up with an unmeasurably small vapour‐pressure and that these 6 H2O are present as “facultative water of crystallization”. In addition yet a 7th molecule of water is taken up as a “zeolithic increment”. Consequently the weight of the triple acetates in the air‐dried state can still fluctuate by about 0.25%.Kahane's triple acetate was found to contain not 8 H2O but about 5 H2O and in addition about 1.5 mol. ethylalcohol. It is stable in air up to 110° and shows a very small zeolithic increment.The alcohol content of the liquid can vary in the precipitation between 30 and 60%, without the content of “volatile matter” (sum of water and alcohol) in the crystals varying more than 0.2%.Into the anhydrous sodium magnesium uranyl triple acetate 4 molecules of ethyl alcohol can be introduced artificially; they are taken up without any noticeable vapour‐pressure but are readily replaced by H2O.