Sugarcane Leaves Research Articles

Development of a Biodegradable Cassava Starch Biofilm based on a Combination of Plasticizers with Bio‐SiO2 Extracted from Sugarcane Leaves

AbstractThis study prepares biodegradable biofilms for packaging applications from biomass to help reduce plastic waste while also adding value to biomass. Furthermore, the effects of plasticization with 30 wt% plasticizer (relative to the mass of cassava starch) by glycerol (G), sorbitol (S), and a mixture of glycerol and sorbitol (GS) plasticizers are investigated, and the effects of bio‐SiO2 particles extracted from sugarcane leave via the sol–gel method are evaluated in terms of the mechanical and biodegradability properties of the cassava starch‐based biofilms. Biofilms used for packing applications must be insoluble and exhibit good elongation properties. In this context, the results indicate that the GS mixture produces a biofilm that exhibits these desirable properties. Thus, cassava starch‐based biofilms are prepared using GS and varying concentrations of the bio‐SiO2 particles (i.e., 0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 wt%). The films containing bio‐SiO2 exhibit significantly lower water solubilities and moisture contents than the corresponding bio‐SiO2‐free films. Additionally, the inclusion of bio‐SiO2 particles increases the water resistance properties of the biofilms. Overall, the results suggest that cassava starch films prepared using a mixture of plasticizers and reinforced with bio‐SiO2 particles can be considered a safe material for application in biodegradable food packaging.

Properties of Activated Carbons from Sugarcane Leaves and Rice Straw Derived Charcoals by Activation at Low Temperature via KMnO Pre-Oxidation-Hydrolysis

Properties of Activated Carbons from Sugarcane Leaves and Rice Straw Derived Charcoals by Activation at Low Temperature via KMnO Pre-Oxidation-Hydrolysis

Two-step physico-biological production of xylooligosaccharides from sugarcane leaves

The production of xylooligosaccharides (XOS) from sugarcane leaves (SCL) presents high potential to the nutraceutical industries as SCL are cheap and readily available. In this study, a two-step process using hydrothermal pretreatments and enzymatic hydrolysis are developed and optimized for XOS production to obtain high conversion yield and product specificity. Two operation methods for hydrothermal pretreatments, parr reactor, and microwave reactor were compared to extract xylan from SCL. Two hemicellulose enzymes, hemicellulase Amano and xylanase (X2753) were then tested for enzymatic hydrolysis of extracted xylan to XOS. Conditions with high conversion yield after pretreatments were found at 180 °C for 30 min (parr reactor) and 800 W for 8 min (microwave reactor): producing 4.95 mg/mL (22.11 %w/v) and 3.49 mg/mL (15.61 %w/v) XOS respectively. Subjection of derived liquor from hydrothermal pretreatment to enzymatic hydrolysis produced a maximum of 9.42 mg/mL (41.87 %w/v) and 7.81 mg/mL (34.71 %w/v) of XOS for hemicellulase Amano and xylanase (X2753) respectively. The hemicellulase resulted in XOS with degree of polymerization (DP) of 2–5 for the various pretreatment conditions whereas xylanase yielded XOS of DP 2 to 4. However, a negative effect on enzymatic hydrolysis was observed for microwave-assisted pretreated samples. This study revealed that combination of physico-biological methods on SCL could result in high XOS yield with distinct degree of polymerization.

PRODUCTION OF TORREFIED BIOMASS PELLETS FROM WOODY AND AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES (TIChE2021)

Two different combined process sequences of biomass pretreatment between pelletization after torrefaction (PAT) and pelletization before torrefaction (PBT) were comparatively investigated to produce torrefied biomass pellets (TBP) from woody biomasses, e.g. Leucaena (LC) and rubberwood (RW), and agricultural residues, e.g. rice straw (RS) and sugarcane leaves (SCL). In this study, each sample was thermally treated at 260-300°C for 5 min during torrefaction process. It was found that both woody biomasses and agricultural residues had mass yield lower than 63wt%, while the bulk density of TBPs were improved higher than 400kg/m3. For equilibrium moisture content (EMC) analysis, TBPs via PBT method had lower EMC than raw pellet after being kept at 30°C for 12 days. For the thermochemical properties, the TBPs had higher FC, %C, and HHVs than raw pellets in all biomasses and increased with torrefaction temperature. When comparing the TBPs between PAT and PBT torrefied pellets, the HHVs of PBT torrefied pellets at 300°C were achieved highest at 27 MJ/kg for SCL sample, leading to lower H/C and O/C ratio closely to that of lignite. In addition, the combustion performance index (Sn) of PAT and PBT torrefied pellets was lower than raw pellets, showing a similar property as coal and lignite. Briefly, this study suggests using PBT pretreatment process to produce high quality solid fuel, particularly for agricultural residues such as SCL for a potential substitute of currently used coal.

Sugarcane leave-derived cellulose nanocrystal/graphene oxide filter membrane for efficient removal of particulate matter

The goal of this study is to isolate cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) from sugarcane leaves (SCL) and fabricate filter membranes. Filter membranes consisting of the CNC and varying amount graphene oxide (GO) were fabricated using vacuum filtration technique. The α-cellulose content increased from 53.56 ± 0.49 % in untreated SCL to 78.44 ± 0.56 % and 84.99 ± 0.44 % in steam-exploded and bleached fibers, respectively. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) of CNC isolated from SCL indicated nanosized particles in the range of 7.3 nm and 150 nm for diameter and length, respectively. Morphologies of the fiber and CNC/GO membranes were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and crystallinity by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of crystal lattice. The crystallinity index of CNC decreased with the addition of GO into the membranes. The CNC/GO-2 recorded the highest tensile index of 3.001 MPa. The removal efficiency increases with increasing GO content. The highest removal efficiency of 98.08 % was recorded for CNC/GO-2. CNC/GO-2 membrane reduced growth of Escherichia coli to 65 CFU compared to >300 CFU of control sample. SCL is a potential bioresource for isolation of cellulose nanocrystals and fabrication of high-efficiency filter membrane for particulate matter removal and inhibition of bacteria.

Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Sugarcane Leaves, Cow Dung and Food Waste: Focus on Methane Yield and Synergistic Effects

Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) of food waste (FW) and lignocellulose waste is a promising technology for methane production. This work investigated the methane generation from AcoD of FW, sugarcane leaves (SLs), and cow dung (CD) under mesophilic conditions in a batch test. As for AcoD of two feedstocks (SL and FW or CD and FW), introduction of SL and CD (25%, volatile solid (VS) basis) showed slight improvement in methane production from FW. In contrast, positive synergistic effect (synergy index = 1.03–1.14 > 1) was observed in all the AcoD reactors of the three feedstocks (SL, CD, and FW). The optimum mixing ratio of FW:SL:CD (VS basis) was 85:11.25:3.75 with a synergy index of 1.07, achieving a methane yield rate and methane content of 297.16 mL/g VS and 73.26%, respectively. This group cumulative methane production was an improvement of 110.45 and 444.72% higher than mono-digestion of SL and CD. The biodegradability, soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD), and VS removal rate were 56.44, 44.55 and 55.38%, respectively. The optimum results indicated that AcoD of FW, SL, and CD have higher potentials for energy recovery and provided forceful scientific evidence for their energy utilization.

Biohydrogen and Methane Production from Sugarcane Leaves Pretreated by Deep Eutectic Solvents and Enzymatic Hydrolysis by Cellulolytic Consortia

This study determined the optimal conditions for the deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment of sugarcane leaves and the best fermentation mode for hydrogen and methane production from DES-pretreated sugarcane leaves. Choline chloride (ChCl):monoethanolamine (MEA) is the most effective solvent for removing lignin from sugarcane leaves. The optimum conditions were a ChCl: MEA molar ratio of 1:6, 120 °C, 3 h, and substrate-to-DES solution ratio of 1:12. Under these conditions, 86.37 ± 0.36% lignin removal and 73.98 ± 0.42% hemicellulose removal were achieved, whereas 84.13 ± 0.77% cellulose was recovered. At a substrate loading of 4 g volatile solids (VS), the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) processes yielded maximum hydrogen productions of 3187 ± 202 and 2135 ± 315 mL H2/L, respectively. In the second stage, methane was produced using the hydrogenic effluent. SSF produced 5923 ± 251 mL CH4/L, whereas SHF produced 3583 ± 128 mL CH4/L. In a one-stage methane production process, a maximum methane production of 4067 ± 320 mL CH4/L with a substrate loading of 4 g VS was achieved from the SSF process. SSF proved to be more efficient than SHF for producing hydrogen from DES-pretreated sugarcane leaves in a two-stage hydrogen and methane production process as well as a one-stage methane production process.

Pyrolysis of Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Leaves and Characterization of Products.

The finite nature, regional availability, and environmental problems associated with the use of fossil fuels have forced all countries of the world to look for renewable eco-friendly alternatives. Agricultural waste biomasses, generated through the cultivation of cereal and noncereal crops, are being considered renewable and viable alternatives to fossil fuels. In view of this, there has been a global spurt in research efforts for using abundantly available agricultural wastes as feedstocks for obtaining energy and value-added products through biochemical and thermal conversion routes. In the present work, the thermochemical characteristics and thermal degradation behavior of sugarcane leaves (SCL) and tops were studied. The batch pyrolysis was carried out in a fixed-bed tubular reactor to obtain biochar, bio-oil, and pyrolytic gas. Effects of bed height (4–16 cm), particle size (0.180–0.710 mm), heating rate (15–30 °C/min), and temperature (350–650 °C) were investigated. The maximum yields of bio-oil (44.7%), biogas (36.67%), and biochar (36.82%) were obtained at 550, 650, and 350 °C, respectively, for a 16 cm deep bed of particles of size 0.18–0.30 mm at the heating rate of 25 °C/min. The composition of bio-oil was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) techniques. Several aliphatic, aromatic, phenolic, ketonic, and other acidic compounds were found in the bio-oil. The biochar had a highly porous structure and several micronutrients, making it useful as a soil conditioner. In the middle temperature ranges, biogas had more methane and CO and less hydrogen, but at higher temperatures, hydrogen was predominant.

PENAMBAHAN KATALIS BIO KARBON AKTIF UNTUK PENINGKATAN PRODUKSI HDROGEN PADA ELEKTROLISIS AIR

Air electrolysis is the decomposition of air compounds (H2O) into Oxygen and Hydrogen using an electric current. Currently, the efficiency of conventional electrolysis is about 50%. The use of catalysts is part of an effort to increase Hydrogen production. In this paper, 50 ppm and 100 ppm of Bio Activated Carbon of Sugarcane Leaves (BKADT) have been added as catalysts to increase Hydrogen production. FTIR testing has shown that BKADT has an aromatic ring functional group that has a magnetic field. By using ImageJ software, it has been proven that the BKADT surface has an electric charge which is dominated by a positive charge. The magnetic field plays a role in Hydrogen, where the electric charge plays a role in increasing its dissolution so that it becomes a good conductor. As a result, a large increase in BKADT increases Hydrogen production. The greatest hydrogen production of 14.5 ml for 10 minutes was obtained at the addition BKADT of 100 ppm.

Extraction of Bio-oil from Sugarcane Leaves

Bio oil production has become the main substitute for fossil-based fuels, but it should be available as a cost-effective method for its production. Extraction of bio-oil from sugarcane leaf is the motive of this project. We are going to achieve this by grinding the leaves freshly into a liquid form with Sugarcane Juicer that is going to be inoculated with Saccharomyces Cerevisiae (Brewer’s Yeast). The yeast culture was maintained in YPD (Yeast Peptone Dextrose) agar medium for 72 Hours. Once this Yeast grows, it is coagulated with the Sugarcane leaf extract that separates Bioethanol by distillation. Then this Bio-oil can be used in engines. This Bio oil is made because this is cost efficient. It is less pollutive when compared to other gasoline Products. These leaves are mostly thrown out as trash or else it is burnt, so this could be a method of changing those trash into one of the Valuable resources of fuel for Heavy vehicles.

Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Sugarcane Leaves, Cow Dung, and Food Waste: Focus on Methane Yield and Synergistic Effects

Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) of food waste (FW) and lignocellulose waste for methane production is a promising technology. This work investigated the methane generation from AcoD of FW, sugarcane leaves (SL), and cow dung (CD) under mesophilic condition in a batch test. As for AcoD of two feedstocks (SL and FW or CD and FW), introduction of SL and CD (25%, volatile solid (VS) basis) showed slight improvement in methane production from FW. In contrast, positive synergistic effect (synergy index=1.03–1.14>1) was observed in all the AcoD reactors of the three feedstocks (SL, CD, and FW). The optimum mixing ratio of FW:SL:CD (VS basis) was 85:11.25:3.75 with a synergy index of 1.07, achieving a methane yield rate and methane content of 297.16 mL/g VS and 73.26%, respectively. This methane production rate was 110.45% and 444.72% higher than mono-digestion of SL and CD. The biodegradability, soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD), and VS removal rate are 56.44%, 44.55%, and 55.38%, respectively. The optimum results indicate that AcoD of FW, SL, and CD have higher potentials for energy recovery and providing a forceful scientific evidence for their energy utilization.

Sugarcane processing by-products for bioethanol production in the Philippines: a retrospective assessment from 2007 to 2017 and future challenges

Sugarcane has been tapped as a source of sugar and molasses for the production of bioethanol in the Philippines. The increasing demand in bioethanol due to the rising consumption of gasoline, the surplus sugar and molasses would not be able to meet future demands. In the harvesting and processing of sugarcane, residues like that of sugarcane leaves (SCL) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) are generated. These residues are composed of sugar-based fibers, which may be utilized in producing bioethanol. Despite sugarcane residues being among the abundant crop residues generated, assessment on their potential for bioethanol production have been scarce. An initial assessment of the potentials of utilizing SCL and SCB produced in the Philippines and their contribution when utilized as raw material for bioethanol production is provided in this work. The geographical scenario of the Philippines was also taken into consideration. The limitations that could potentially be brought about by the competing use of available resource for bioenergy generation are also discussed. It is hoped that this work will provide a simple approach in providing or generating quantitative baseline information for consideration in future policies to avoid potential competition and emphasize on the need for appropriate allocation of available resources.

Physicochemical characterization of forest and sugarcane leaf combustion's particulate matters using electron microscopy, EDS, XRD and TGA

Physical characteristics and quantitative elemental composition of PM and residual ash produced from sugarcane leaves (SCL) combustion were investigated using TEM-EDS compared with forest leaves (FRL). SEM-EDS was used to analyze the microstructure and chemical composition of biomass raw leaves and PM. XRD analysis was also performed to investigate the characterization of the crystalline nanostructure, structure of PM, and residual ash compared to the TEM image processing method. The oxidation kinetics of biomass raw materials, PM, and residual ash were investigated by TGA. The morphology of fine and ultrafine agglomerate structure of SCL soot and residual ash are not significantly different from the FRL soot and residual ash. The average diameter sizes of single primary nanoparticles of SCL and FRL soot are approximately 37 nm and 35 nm, while the sizes of residual ash are about 18 nm and 22 nm, respectively. The single primary nanoparticles of soot are mainly composed of curve line crystallites of carbon fringes, while residual ash is composed of straight-line lattice fringes. The average fringe lengths of SCL and FRL soot are about 1.25 nm and 1.04 nm from the outer shell and 0.89 nm and 0.74 nm from the inner core. The interlayer spacing of curve line carbon fringes of SCL and FRL soot is approximately 0.359 nm and 0.362 nm by the TEM image analysis and it was matched with XRD analysis. The biomass PMs are mainly composed of soot, Si, Ca, and K compounds: SiO2, CaCO3, and KCl.

Investigation on Electrochemical Properties of Sugarcane Leaves - Derived Activated Carbon by Steam Activation

Sugarcane leaves (SLs) are a bio-waste from sugar production industry. To explore the value-added SLs, the SLs were used raw materials of activated carbons (ACs) by steam activation and their electrochemial properties were investigated for supercapacitor applications. The synthesis of ACs from the SLs consisted of two steps; carbonization at 500oC and steam activation. The synthesis condition was optimized by varying activation temperature (800 and 850oC) The porous structures were thoroughly formed on the surface after steam activation and the surface areas were reached to 630 and 639 m2 g-1 at the activation temperature of 800 and 850oC, respectively. The SLs-derived ACs activated at 800oC assembled in coin cell using organic electrolyte showed the highest specific capacitance of approximately 16 F g-1 with a capacitance retention of 62% when the current density increased to 1.5 A g-1. Even though there is a room to improve the electrochemical properties such as optimization of porosity and removal of inorganic component, the SLs show a potential use as raw materials of ACs for supercapacitor applications.

Effect of microwave-assisted wet torrefaction on liquefaction of biomass from palm oil and sugarcane wastes to bio-oil and carbon nanodots/nanoflakes by hydrothermolysis and solvothermolysis

This study aimed to produce bio-oils from various lignocellulosic biomass, namely palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), palm fiber (PF), sugarcane bagasse (SB), and sugarcane leaves (SL). Hydrothermal liquefaction, an environmentally benign process, was applied for converting wet bio-resources to bio-oils. The effect of Na2CO3 and La2O3 catalysts were investigated at 300 °C, the results showed higher bio-oil yield from Na2CO3 compared to La2O3. The use of glycerol solvent as a hydrogen donor substantially enhanced bio-oil yield for 300% compared to aqueous solvent. Furthermore, the microwave-assisted wet torrefaction (800 W for 20 min) pretreatment employed for EFB helps to increase aliphatic and aromatic compounds and enhance the light and heavy bio-oils yields to 76.80 wt%. SB and EFB are promising biomass for solvothermolysis liquefaction giving the highest energy ratio. A substantial amount of carbon nanodots and nanoflakes were produced from hydrothermolysis and solvothermolysis liquefaction of EFB with average mean diameters of 49.5 and 100.4 nm, respectively.

Polysaccharide extraction from sugarcane leaves: combined effects of different cellulolytic pretreatment and extraction methods

This research was conducted to determine the combined effects of different cellulolytic pretreatments (cellulase vs. mixed enzymes) and extraction methods (water vs. deep eutectic solvent, DES) on the yield, chemical and functional properties of polysaccharide (PS) from sugarcane leaves (SCLs). The DESs used were choline chloride-1,4-butanediol (DESB) and choline chloride-urea (DESU). The SCLs were initially enzyme-pretreated, followed by extraction using water and DES respectively. The produced crude polysaccharide extracts (CPSs) were characterized via FTIR, total phenolics, DPPH free radical scavenging activity and in vitro simulated gastrointestinal analysis. The results indicated that cellulolytic pretreatment improved the PS yield by 14–16%, but reduced the solubility, DPPH activity and gastrointestinal digestibility of CPS. DES-CPSs possessed higher solubility and DPPH activity than water-CPSs. FTIR analysis unveiled that lignin–carbohydrate-complex was likely the component that restricted the solubility and probably the digestibility of water-CPSs. This study concluded that pretreatment and extraction procedures distinctively affected the chemical characteristics, and subsequently the functional properties of CPS.

Anaerobic co-digestion of sodium hydroxide pretreated sugarcane leaves with pig manure and dairy manure

Sugarcane leaves (SL) pretreated by alkali was used as substrate to enhance biogas production via mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) in this study. Effectiveness of different concentrations of NaOH pretreatment on AD performance was investigated. Results showed that compared to untreated sample of SL, the lignocellulose (LCH) content of NaOH pretreated group was decreased by 5.79%-16.85%. However, the cumulative biogas production of the pretreated samples increased in the range of 34.54%-82.67%; moreover, T90 was shorten by 5-7 d. The highest anaerobic digestibility of SL was achieved at 6% NaOH pretreatment, which produced 287.30 mL/g TS of biogas. A significant interactive effect of the three parameters (temperature, SL/manure mixing ratio and C/N ratio) was found on the biogasification of anaerobic co-digestion, and a maximum biogas production was achieved at 36.2oC, mixing ratio of 1.6 and C/N ratio of 29.2. These show that the verification experiment confirmed the optimization results. This study provides meaningful insight for exploring efficient pretreatment strategy and optimal condition to stabilize and enhance AD performance for practical application. Keywords: NaOH pretreatment, co-digestion, sugarcane leaves, pig manure, dairy manure DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181104.4079 Citation: Luo J, Meng H B, Yao Z L, Wachemo A C, Yuan H R, Zhang L, et al. Anaerobic co-digestion of sodium hydroxide pretreated sugarcane leaves with pig manure and dairy manure. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(4): 224-229.

Inoculation with Compost-Born Thermophilic Complex Microbial Consortium Induced Organic Matters Degradation While Reduced Nitrogen Loss During Co-Composting of Dairy Manure and Sugarcane Leaves

This investigation was carried out on the effects of compost-born thermophilic complex microbial consortium (TCMC) composed of Ureibacillus suwonensis (TB42), Geobacillus thermodenitrificans (TB62) and Bacillus licheniformis (TA65) on co-composting of dairy manure and sugarcane leaves. The study assessed the TCMC influence on physicochemical parameters and dissolved organic matter (DOM) properties. Compared to the control (CP), the inoculated pile (CPT) showed a longer thermophilic phase, a faster organic matter degradation, a better Kjeldahl nitrogen preservation as well as a greater aromaticity and stability of DOM. Consequently, the inoculation with TCMC agent was effective in reducing the loss of nitrogen and accelerating maturity of compost.

Anaerobic co-digestion of sodium hydroxide pretreated sugarcane leaves with pig manure and dairy manure

Sugarcane leaves (SL) pretreated by alkali was used as substrate to enhance biogas production via mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) in this study. Effectiveness of different concentrations of NaOH pretreatment on AD performance was investigated. Results showed that compared to untreated sample of SL, the lignocellulose (LCH) content of NaOH pretreated group was decreased by 5.79%-16.85%. However, the cumulative biogas production of the pretreated samples increased in the range of 34.54%-82.67%; moreover, T90 was shorten by 5-7 d. The highest anaerobic digestibility of SL was achieved at 6% NaOH pretreatment, which produced 287.30 mL/g TS of biogas. A significant interactive effect of the three parameters (temperature, SL/manure mixing ratio and C/N ratio) was found on the biogasification of anaerobic co-digestion, and a maximum biogas production was achieved at 36.2oC, mixing ratio of 1.6 and C/N ratio of 29.2. These show that the verification experiment confirmed the optimization results. This study provides meaningful insight for exploring efficient pretreatment strategy and optimal condition to stabilize and enhance AD performance for practical application. Keywords: NaOH pretreatment, co-digestion, sugarcane leaves, pig manure, dairy manure DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181104.4079 Citation: Luo J, Meng H B, Yao Z L, Wachemo A C, Yuan H R, Zhang L, et al. Anaerobic co-digestion of sodium hydroxide pretreated sugarcane leaves with pig manure and dairy manure. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(4): 224-229.

Energy densification of sugarcane leaves through torrefaction under minimized oxidative atmosphere

Worldwide, the annual energy content of sugarcane leaves (SCL) amounts to 4.21EJ. However, its direct use as a solid fuel is hindered by its inherent characteristics, such as its low bulk density, low energy density, and hygroscopic nature. These characteristics of SCL could be improved through torrefaction. However, in addition to these characteristics, combustion and flow characteristics, expressed in their respective indices, should also meet their desired values as they have direct influence in the later performance of boilers and furnaces. Torrefaction of SCL at various temperatures (250–350°C) and times (0–75min) under minimized oxidative atmosphere was investigated in this study to improve its characteristics as solid fuel. The torrefaction performance was not only assessed through the mass and energy yields, but also changes in the combustion and flow indices. Torrefaction at 300°C & 45min led to the increase in fixed carbon to as much as 21g for every 100g of raw SCL being torrefied, which originally contains 18g of fixed carbon. Devolatilization during torrefaction not only involves the volatilization of the volatiles but also the formation of additional fixed carbon. The higher heating value (HHV) of SCL increased to as much as ~22MJ/kg after the torrefaction. The resulting SCL torrefied at 300°C for at least 45min was found to be suitable for industrial and domestic applications having fuel ratio (FR), combustibility index (CI), volatile ignitability (VI), Hausner ratio (HR), and Carr compressibility index (CCI) falling within prescribed values of 0.5–2.0, 12–23MJ/kg, >14MJ/kg, <1.34, and <25, respectively.