Sugarcane Bagasse Fibers Research Articles

Characteristics of surface modified sugarcane bagasse cellulose: application of esterification and oxidation reactions

Research on polymer matrix composites has become increasingly important in both the academic and industrial sectors. The study of polymer-natural fiber composites, known for their eco-friendly properties, has gained significance. Sugarcane bagasse fibers, abundant as discarded agricultural byproducts, offer improved properties such as density, rigidity, strength, and cost-effectiveness, enhancing sustainability. As a result, experiments were performed on cellulose fibers pre-treated from sugarcane bagasse using 5% NaOH solution by simply soaking them for 4–5 h followed by washing with water. Further modifications involved esterification using phthalic anhydride and phthaloyl chloride via steam baths at 90 °C and oxidation using sodium percarbonate with a phase transfer catalyst (Adogen) at 80 °C. These chemically altered cellulose fibers exhibited significant peak changes in the FTIR spectra, a reduced crystallinity index in the XRD pattern, increased thermal stability as evidenced by TGA curve, and improved surface roughness in the SEM analysis. This paper emphasizes successful pretreatment procedures for isolating cellulose fibers from sugarcane bagasse and introduces three chemical treatments for surface functionalization which might find applications in the preparation of biocomposites.

Production of eco composites based on natural rubber and recycled sugarcane bagasse waste to be utilised as a type of food contact

Natural fibres are abundant, renewable, and biodegradable, which has inspired numerous academics worldwide to investigate their possible applications in various industrial fields. The food packaging sector is seeking bio-based and biodegradable substitutes to increase sustainability. In this study, new composites were prepared from natural rubber (NR) and sugarcane bagasse fibres (SCB) with different concentrations of SCB (0, 2.5, 5, 10 &20 phr). The effect of SCB on the properties of natural rubber was studied before and after the alkaline treatment of the fibres. The biocomposites are characterized using Fourier transmission infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, and dielectric measurements in addition to rheological and mechanical analysis. The overall migration test for biocomposites loaded with 20phr SCB was performed to assess the biocomposite’s safety as food contact materials. The study’s results indicated that, adding SCB improved the conductivity, tensile strength, and elongation at break of natural rubber. Alkaline treatment strengthened the bonding between the filler and matrix and improved biocomposites’ thermal dielectric and mechanical properties. The overall migration test indicated that the alkaline treatment increased the overall migration to simulants. Accordingly, alkaline-treated NR-SCB biocomposites are effective eco-friendly food packaging candidates for certain types of food such as aqueous non-acidic products.

Effect of utilising of sugarcane bagasse fibers on mechanical properties of composite materials ـــ a review

Effect of utilising of sugarcane bagasse fibers on mechanical properties of composite materials ـــ a review

Variations in Size of Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber as Raw Material for Making Environmentally Friendly Plates

Plastic is a material that is often used as a storage medium, equipment and also furniture to support human activities, but plastic is not easily broken down by the environment. Bioplastic technology is one of the efforts made to address the problem of plastic packaging which can pollute the environment. Environmentally friendly plates, bioplastic products made from tapioca, glycerol and sugar cane bagasse. This research aims to determine the effect of variations in the size of bagasse on tensile strength, elongation at break, water resistance and biodegradability of environmentally friendly plates and to obtain the best formulation of varying sizes of bagasse as raw material for making environmentally friendly plates. This research used a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with one factor, namely variation in the size of the bagasse. The results of this research show that there is a real influence between tensile strength, water resistance and biodegradability, however, in the elongation test, variations in bagasse did not have a significant effect. Tensile strength values range from 20.00 N/mm2 to 47.72 N/mm2. The largest elongation value is 4.08%. The highest water resistance is at room temperature, namely 88.86% with a degree of curvature of 16⁰ and in water with a temperature of 60⁰C, namely 85.02% with a degree of curvature of 18.75⁰. Variations in the size of bagasse also affect the biodegradability of environmentally friendly plates which ranges from 11.77% to 14.65%. The best treatment is a sample with a variety of bagasse sizes of 60 mesh, because it has high strength compared to other samples.

Properties of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)/thermoplastic starch filled with treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse fiber

Sugarcane bagasse, comprising fibrous rind and spongy pith, is frequently employed as a reinforcing agent in both concrete and plastic composites. In thin plastic films, sugarcane bagasse is typically utilized as finely ground particles within the composite film. The integration of this agricultural byproduct into biodegradable plastic films could potentially lower production expenses and promote the film's biodegradability. This study presents the development of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/thermoplastic starch (TPS) (90/10) formulations incorporating varying loadings of sugarcane bagasse fibers. The impact of alkaline and silane surface treatments on tensile strength, thermal properties, and water barrier properties was investigated. Upon the inclusion of sugarcane bagasse (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%), a decrease in tensile strength from 23.47 to 8.41 MPa and elongation at break from 1135% to 55.83% was observed. Conversely, the Young's modulus increased from 47.12 to 188.50 MPa following the addition of 20% sugarcane bagasse in the PBAT/TPS matrix. Modest enhancements in tensile properties, thermal characteristics, and water barrier properties were noted after treating the bagasse fibers with alkaline and silane. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis revealed that silane-treated sugarcane bagasse exhibited increased surface roughness due to the removal of lignin and hemicellulose, facilitating better adhesion between the fibers and the PBAT/TPS matrix.

Enhancing epoxy composite materials through lime‐treated sugarcane bagasse and glass fiber reinforcement: Morphological, mechanical, and flame‐retardant insights

AbstractThis study investigates the utilization of sugarcane bagasse and glass fiber to reinforce epoxy composites, enhancing both mechanical and fire resistance properties. Initially, bagasse is collected, sun‐dried, and finely ground before being treated with lime water at concentrations of 3%, 5%, and 7% by weight. The treated bagasse is then mixed with epoxy resin and a hardening agent, followed by a curing process. For samples incorporating glass fibers, the fibers are manually integrated and cured similarly. The methodology involved detailed preparation of the bagasse, its treatment, and subsequent integration with epoxy resin. The mixture was processed under controlled conditions to ensure uniformity and quality. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength, compressive strength, and impact resistance were measured. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was employed to assess thermal stability, while fire resistance was evaluated using the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and the 94‐V test method. Results demonstrated significant improvements in both mechanical and thermal properties with the addition of bagasse and glass fibers. The optimal treatment was identified at a 5% lime water concentration, yielding a tensile strength of 295.08 MPa, flexural strength of 371.24 MPa, compressive strength of 255.39 MPa, and Izod impact strength of 157.04 kJ/m2. TGA results showed the highest thermal stability at 5% concentration, with decomposition temperatures peaking at 402.52 °C. Fire resistance was markedly enhanced, achieving an LOI of 29.8% and meeting V2 level standards according to the 94‐V test method. In conclusion, treating sugarcane bagasse with a 5% lime water solution significantly enhances the mechanical and fire‐resistant properties of epoxy composites. The combination of sugarcane bagasse and glass fiber creates a robust material with high thermal stability and fire resistance, making it a viable option for applications requiring these enhanced properties.

Pengaruh Penambahan Serat Ampas Tebu Sebagai Tulangan Micro pada Beton

Based on this research, concrete has high compressive strength but low flexural strength. There-fore, the addition of sugarcane bagasse fibers is carried out as an additive to overcome the low flexural strength issue in concrete. This study aims to determine the effect of adding sugarcane bagasse fibers on the characteristics of concrete, including compressive and flexural strength. Fiber-reinforced concrete is a composite material consisting of regular concrete and other mate-rials, such as natural or artificial fibers. The method used in this research is an experimental method, adding 1% of sugarcane bagasse fibers by weight of cement to the normal concrete with a target strength of F'c 19.3 MPa and fiber length of 5 cm. The samples used in this research are concrete cylinders and beams tested using a Universal Testing Machine. The research results show that the optimum compressive strength of normal concrete is 20.36 MPa at 28 days of age. Meanwhile, for fiber-reinforced concrete BSTC and BSTH, the compressive strengths are 17.83 MPa and 16.49 MPa, respectively, indicating a decrease compared to the normal concrete. This decrease is attributed to the addition of sugarcane bagasse fibers, which are lightweight addi-tives and not solid aggregates, resulting in some voids in the sugarcane bagasse fibers. The re-sults of the flexural strength testing show that the optimum flexural strength of BSTC is 4.44 MPa, and for BSTH, it is 4.09 MPa, while the normal concrete (BN) only achieves 3.61 MPa. This is due to the increased bonding effect in concrete caused by the addition of fibers, which helps to resist the occurrence of cracks during flexural testing

Towards Sustainable Packaging Using Microbial Cellulose and Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Bagasse.

The high consumption of packaging has led to a massive production of waste, especially in the form of nonbiodegradable polymers that are difficult to recycle. Microbial cellulose is considered a biodegradable, low-cost, useful, ecologically correct polymer that may be joined with other biomaterials to obtain novel characteristics and can, therefore, be used as a raw material to produce packaging. Bagasse, a waste rich in plant cellulose, can be reprocessed and used to produce and reinforce other materials. Based on these concepts, the aim of the current research was to design sustainable packaging material composed of bacterial cellulose (BC) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB), employing an innovative shredding and reconstitution method able to avoid biomass waste. This method enabled creating a uniform structure with a 0.10-cm constant thickness, classified as having high grammage. The developed materials, particularly the 0.7 BC/0.3 SCB [70% (w/w) BC plus 30% (w/w) SCB] composite, had considerable tensile strength (up to 46.22 MPa), which was nearly thrice that of SCB alone (17.43 MPa). Additionally, the sorption index of the 0.7 BC/0.3 SCB composite (235.85 ± 31.29 s) was approximately 300-times higher than that of SCB (0.78 ± 0.09 s). The packaging material was also submitted to other analytical tests to determine its physical and chemical characteristics, which indicated that it has excellent flexibility and can be folded 100 times without tearing. Its surface was explored via scanning electron microscopy, which revealed the presence of fibers measuring 83.18 nm in diameter (BC). Greater adherence after the reconstitution process and even a uniform distribution of SCB fibers in the BC matrix were observed, resulting in greater tear resistance than SCB in its pure form. The results demonstrated that the composite formed by BC and SCB is promising as a raw material for sustainable packaging, due to its resistance and uniformity.

ALKALINE TREATMENT OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE FIBERS FOR BIOCOMPOSITE APPLICATIONS

This study investigates the mechanical, structural, morphological, and thermal properties of chemically treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse fibers (SCB). Various concentrations of NaOH were used for the treatment over four hours. The main goal was to investigate the impact of alkali treatment on the overall properties of SCB fibers intended for composite applications. The results indicated that the crystallinity index, thermal stability, and mechanical properties were improved with the treatment, and this is due to the removal of impurities initially present on the outer surface of the SCB fiber and the reduction of amorphous components. This improvement may facilitate better adhesion between the SCB fibers and the polymeric matrices in biocomposite applications. However, it is important to determine the optimal concentration of NaOH that improves the properties of the SCB fiber without damaging the fiber’s structure.

Post-consumer high-density polyethylene matrix reinforced by sugarcane bagasse fibers treated in stearic acid solution

The study aimed to advance composite technology by exploring the potential of recycled materials, specifically high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites reinforced with sugarcane bagasse fibers. This research not only addresses environmental concerns by utilizing recyclable materials but also aims to offer significant technical, economic, and social advantages. The investigation focused on formulating and evaluating these composites, considering varying proportions of untreated sugarcane bagasse fibers and examining the effects of chemical treatment with stearic acid at different temperatures. Using a conical twin-screw extruder and injector, the researchers produced and analyzed the composites both morphologically and mechanically. The principal findings indicated that the inclusion of untreated fibers improved the stiffness and tensile strength of the composites. Nevertheless, adhesion between the fibers and the matrix was compromised, especially with higher fiber concentrations. Chemical treatment at 40 °C significantly improved fiber/matrix interactions, thereby enhancing the reliability and mechanical properties of the composites. This treatment led to substantial increases in tensile and compressive strengths, particularly noticeable in composites containing 10%–15% fiber by weight. These results not only demonstrate the feasibility of using recycled HDPE and sugarcane bagasse fibers in composite materials but also suggest avenues for further exploration. Future research could delve deeper into optimizing chemical treatment processes to achieve even better adhesion and mechanical performance. Moreover, exploring broader applications in industries such as automotive, aerospace, naval, civil engineering, and packaging could unlock new opportunities for these sustainable composites. This study thus paves the way for advancing composite technology towards more environmentally friendly and economically viable solutions.

Development of Agrowaste and Cellulose-based Composite Filters and Their Application in Fast Removal of Metallic Cations from Water

Low-cost lignocellulosic filters were made from soybean hulls (SH), sugarcane bagasse fibers (SBF), cellulose nanofibers (CNF), and Kraft-bleached pulp (BP) as renewable feedstocks and applied in Cu (II) and Cd (II) removal from aqueous medium. Filtration was performed with a vacuum pump; filtration times ranged from 3 to 1200 seconds. For the same filter, the best permeate flow was 13,333 L.h.m-2 for both cations. The best Cd (II) removal (77.2 %) was achieved within 7 seconds at a permeate flow of 5,714 L.h.m-2. The same filter was also the best at removing Cu (II) (46.5 %), which was achieved within 7 seconds at a permeate flow of 5,714 L.h.m-2, as well. This short time evidenced that a long contact time is not needed to achieve higher removal. The best filter was made of BP, CNF, and SH. The presence of SBF and SH increased the contact angle and decreased the solid free energy surface. By FTIR-ATR it was possible to verify with which groups present in the chemical structures of the filter components the Cd (II) and Cu (II) cations interacted best. These results demonstrate the potential use of lignocellulosic biomass for producing composites aimed at water decontamination.

Extraction of Nanocellulose from the Residue of Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber for Anti-Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) Application.

Nanocellulose contains a large number of hydroxyl groups that can be used to modify its surface due to its structure. Owing to its appealing features, such as high strength, great stiffness, and high surface area, nanocellulose is currently gaining popularity in research and industry. The extraction of nanocellulose from the leftover bagasse fiber from sugarcane production by alkaline and acid treatment was successful in this study, with a production yield of 55.6%. The FTIR and XPS results demonstrated a difference in the functional and chemical composition of untreated sugarcane bagasse and extracted nanocellulose. SEM imaging was used to examined the size of the nanocellulose with ImageJ software v1.8.0. TGA, DTG, and XRD analyses were also performed to demonstrate the successful extraction of nanocellulose in terms of its morphology, thermal stability, and crystal structure before and after extraction. The anti-S. aureus activity of the extracted nanocellulose was discovered by using an OD600 test and a colony counting method, and an inhibitory rate of 53.12% was achieved. According to the results, nanocellulose produced from residual sugarcane bagasse could be employed as an antibacterial agent.

Isolation and characterization of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse fiber (Saccharum officinarum) via delignification and mercerization treatment using response surface modeling (RSM)

Isolation and characterization of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse fiber (Saccharum officinarum) via delignification and mercerization treatment using response surface modeling (RSM)

Ozone-activated lignocellulose films blended with chitosan for edible film production

This work focuses on the influence of ozone pretreatment on the fractionation and solubilization of sugarcane bagasse and soda bagasse pulp fibers in sodium hydroxide/urea solution, as well as the application of regenerated cellulose for producing edible films. The methodology involved pretreating lignocelluloses with ozone for 20 to 120 min before dissolving in sodium hydroxide/urea solution. The influence of the pretreatment conditions on cellulose dissolution yield was investigated. Regenerated cellulose films were then formed, with and without the addition of 2 % chitosan. Mechanical, physical, structural, thermal, and antimicrobial attributes were determined as a function of ozonation conditions of raw materials and chitosan content. The findings exhibited positive effects of short ozonation on enhancing mechanical strength, cohesion, and hydrophobicity. The prolonged ozonation of 120 min demonstrated optimal improvements in continuity, swelling, and antibacterial resistance of obtained films. Incorporating chitosan enhanced tensile performance, stiffness, and vapor barriers but increased moisture absorption. Tailoring the activation of biomass through ozone pretreatment and chitosan addition resulted in renewable films with adjustable properties to meet diverse packaging requirements, particularly for fruit protective coatings, ensuring the preservation of post-harvest quality.

The Impact of Biostarter Em-4 and Buffalo Feces on The Quality of Biogas Created from Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber

Energy is one of the most important needs in life. That’s because all human activities require energy to live. New breakthroughs need to be made to overcome the energy crisis, one of which is biogas by utilizing waste. Waste that can be used is sugarcane bagasse and buffalo feces, which have the potential to produce biogas. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a mixture of bagasse fiber and buffalo manure with the addition of EM-4 biostarter and without EM-4 biostarter that has the potential to produce biogas. Variations in the composition of AT and buffalo feces in this study were 50%SB: 50%BF, 40%SB:60%BF and 30%SB:70%BF without using the EM-4 biostarter. batch-type digester reactor type. The method used is the experimental method. The results showed that biogas production from the composition of a mixture of bagasse fiber with buffalo feces has an influence. Where the more buffalo feces added, the more gas produced. Then for the biogas production process using EM-4 biostarter and without EM-4 biostarter, it was found that the best in producing gas was using EM-4 biostarter, this was due to the function of biostarter which accelerates biogas fermentation so that the influence on biogas production was to use EM-4 biostarter

Performance of compressed earth bricks reinforced with sugar industrial by-products bagasse and molasse: Mechanical, physical and durability properties

Because sustainable development is a major concern, many studies focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions during the manufacturing of building materials. Therefore, in this study, we aim to produce lightweight eco-friendly compressed earth bricks (CEB) using industrial sugar by-products, sugarcane bagasse fibers (SCB) and molasse (SCM), as soil stabilizers to diminish the employment of cement. First, we investigated the physical, chemical, and mineralogical composition of the sugar by-products and the used soil. Then, we produced three types of CEB: bricks with soil and SCM (5 wt% and 10 wt%), bricks with soil and SCB (0.5 wt%, 0.75 wt%, and 1 wt%), and bricks with soil, SCB and SCM (this mixture considered two variable parameters: 5 wt% and 10 wt% of SCM, with varying SCB concentrations at three distinct levels: 0,5 wt%, 0.75 wt% and 1 wt%).The results showed that the incorporation of SCM as a stabilizer instead of cement in CEB enhanced both the dry and wet compressive strength, reaching 11.128 MPa and 9.897 MPa, respectively, which represent more than three times the results for the reference soil brick. As to the soil-SCB matrix, the incorporation of SCB decreased the compressive strength by about 36 % (from 3.338 MPa corresponding to reference brick composed only with soil to 2,142 MPa related to bricks stabilized with 1 wt% of SCB). Finally, for the composite soil-SCB-SCM, the highest value obtained was 9.309 MPa related to 10 wt% of SCM and 0.5 wt% of SCB. Moreover, the durability properties including dry abrasion, erosion, and capillarity tests were investigated and compared. The results indicated that SCM has satisfactory durability criteria while bricks stabilized with only SCB showed low resistance, especially to the capillarity test.

Experimental analysis of sugarcane and coconut shell fibre impregnated with glassfiber composite for aircraft application

Natural fibers' adaptability, sustainability, and environmental friendliness make them useful in a variety of sectors and applications. Sugarcane bagasse and coconut shell, which are made from industrial waste, have great promise as a sustainable substitute for traditional materials. How sugarcane bagasse, coconut shell, and glass fiber interact with an epoxy composite matrix is the subject of the present experimental investigation. The Semi Compression Moulding Machine (SCMM) was used to make the following compositions: 50 % matrix, 20 %-30 % sugarcane fiber, 10 %-25 % glass fiber, and 5 %-10 % coconut shell fiber. The ASTM-compliant composite plate structure that was built has a tensile strength ranging from 20 to 25 MPa and a tensile fatigue failure stress of 7 to 8 MPa, all tested over a range of 14,000 to 16,000 cycles. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used for morphology examination, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) was employed for crystalline properties. The use of natural fibers impregnated into glass fiber reinforced composites allowed for the creation of low density, very stable materials, which were essential for the skin and control surfaces of aircraft.

A Review on Composite Materials Reinforcing with Organic/ Natural Materials

The utilization of natural and fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites as a sustainable solution in the industries. The composite consists of sugarcane bagasse and mesquite fibers. which offers a low-cost, environmentally friendly alternative with potential applications in various industries. epoxy resin known for its cost-effectiveness and resilience, serves as the matrix material. Types of fabrication methods are Vacuum Bag Molding, Hand Lay-Up, Filament Winding, and Hydraulic compression molding from the literature we collected Hydraulic compression molding technique with varying fiber orientations (uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial) is selected for its versatility and reduced material waste. The study involved alkaline, potassium permanganate, and potassium dichromate treatments. The overall study concludes the promising potential of using bagasse and mesquite fibers as sustainable alternatives for reinforcement in epoxy resin composites, offering a viable solution for valorizing agricultural waste and promoting environmentally conscious manufacturing practices. Chemical treatments and fiber processing play a crucial role in enhancing the properties of the fibers, making them suitable for composite applications.

Application of treated sugarcane bagasse fiber in lightweight foamed concrete composites and its influence on strength properties and thermal conductivity

The construction industry recognizes the need for green, lightweight, and self-compacting materials that are also ecologically benign. Recent studies suggest that the novel lightweight foamed concrete (LFC) could potentially reduce the self-weight of structures. Adding natural fibers to FC improves its mechanical properties and contributes significantly to sustainability. One of the greatest difficulties in constructing reinforced LFC is the reinforcing steel bars’ corrosion, which impacts the behavior and lifetime structural integrity of concrete buildings. Therefore, this research aims to investigate the potential use of sugarcane bagasse fiber (SBF) in low-density LFC, after altering it with sodium hydroxide-based alkali treatment (NaOH) to enhance its properties. Low-density FCs are prone to serious durability and performance degradation; hence, in this experiment, FCs with a low density of 800 kg/m3 were fabricated and evaluated. Quantification and evaluation were conducted on several different characteristics, including the slump, density, thermal conductivity, and compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths. The findings suggest that employing SBF with an optimal reinforcing range of 3% to 4% can improve the mechanical characteristics and thermal conductivity of LFC-SBF composites. The slump flow gradually decreased from 1% to 5% of the SBF’s weight fraction. The lowest slump flow was achieved by adding SBF to the LFC mixture at a weight fraction of 5%. The addition of SBF to LFC resulted in a significant boost in the material’s splitting tensile, compressive, and flexural strengths. By adding 4% SBF to LFC, the optimal strength properties were concluded in the material. In addition to this, the weight percent of SBF contributed to an increase in the thermal conductivity of LFC. This was because the porous structure of LFC, which contained SBF, enabled it to absorb heat.

Characterization of sago starch-based degradable plastic with agricultural waste cellulose fiber as filler

<abstract> <p>Sago starch and cellulose fiber can be used as a raw material for making degradable plastics to replace commercial plastics. This research used corn cob fiber and sugarcane bagasse fiber as filler to improve the properties of degradable plastic. The research method consists of several stages, cellulose fiber preparation, degradable plastic synthesis and plastic characterization. The result showed tensile strength of plastic with corn cob and sugarcane bagasse filler was 6.37–11.5 MPa and 9.70–16.47 MPa, respectively. The compound composition test through Fourier Transformation Infra-Red (FTIR) exhibited hydrophilic behavior, hence plastic easily degraded by soil. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) shows that degradable plastic with corn cob fiber filler denoted a melting point of 163.84 ℃, while sugarcane bagasse fiber filler at 163.47 ℃. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) analysis indicated degradable plastic had a good thermal stability. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) exhibited few white lumps and indentations on the surface, indicating that the solubility was not homogeny and could be due to the influence of stirring process. In term of ability to absorb water, both plastic with fiber filler had a small water absorption with a range of 5–6%. Melt Flow Rate (MFR) analysis of degradable plastics with corn cob fiber and sugarcane bagasse pointed the value that was suitable for injection molding processing technique. The degradation of both plastics ranged about 50–85 days to completely decomposed naturally in soil, as supported by FTIR analysis.</p> </abstract>