Sucking Frequency Research Articles

An at-leg pellet and associated Penicillium sp. provide multiple protections to mealybugs

Beneficial fungi are well known for their contribution to insects’ adaptation to diverse habitats. However, where insect-associated fungi reside and the underlying mechanisms of insect-fungi interaction are not well understood. Here, we show a pellet-like structure on the legs of mealybugs, a group of economically important insect pests. This at-leg pellet, formed by mealybugs feeding on tomato but not by those on cotton, potato, or eggplant, originates jointly from host secretions and mealybug waxy filaments. A fungal strain, Penicillium citrinum, is present in the pellets and it colonizes honeydew. P. citrinum can inhibit mealybug fungal pathogens and is highly competitive in honeydew. Compounds within the pellets also have inhibitory activity against mealybug pathogens. Further bioassays suggest that at-leg pellets can improve the survival rate of Phenacoccus solenopsis under pathogen pressure, increase their sucking frequency, and decrease the defense response of host plants. Our study presents evidences on how a fungi-associated at-leg pellet provides multiple protections for mealybugs through suppressing pathogens and host defense, providing new insights into complex insect × fungi × plant interactions and their coevolution.

Sensorimotor Oscillations in Human Infants during an Innate Rhythmic Movement.

The relationship between cerebral rhythms and early sensorimotor development is not clear. In recent decades, evidence revealed a rhythmic modulation involving sensorimotor processing. A widely corroborated functional role of oscillatory activity is to coordinate the information flow across sensorimotor networks. Their activity is coordinated by event-related synchronisation and desynchronisation in different sensorimotor rhythms, which indicate parallel processes may be occurring in the neuronal network during movement. To date, the dynamics of these brain oscillations and early sensorimotor development are unexplored. Our study investigates the relationship between the cerebral rhythms using EEG and a typical rhythmic movement of infants, the non-nutritive sucking (NNS) behaviour. NNS is an endogenous behaviour that originates from the suck central pattern generator in the brainstem. We find, in 17 infants, that sucking frequency correlates with beta synchronisation within the sensorimotor area in two phases: one strongly anticipating (~3 s) and the other encompassing the start of the motion. These findings suggest that a beta synchronisation of the sensorimotor cortex may influence the sensorimotor dynamics of NNS activity. Our results reveal the importance of rapid brain oscillations in infants and the role of beta synchronisation and their possible role in the communication between cortical and deep generators.

Non-Nutritive Suck Assessment Tool Development to Characterize Sucking Patterns in Infant with Various Hunger Levels

Sucking abilities are critical in early infant development, and the patterns of non-nutritive suck (NNS) have been found to potentially predict neurodevelopmental issues in the future. Proper NNS assessments are essential to ensure valid conclusions. Previous studies have shown that the level of infant arousal significantly affects NNS patterns. However, the author did not find any studies that observed the influence of infant hunger levels on NNS patterns. Therefore, this study aimed to develop an NNS assessment tool to characterize NNS patterns in infants with various hunger levels. The NNS assessment was conducted using a pressure transducer connected to a pacifier. The results showed that the level of hunger significantly affected the intra-burst frequency and the sucking pressure. The more hungry the infant, the more frequent the intra-burst frequency became, while the sucking pressure tended to decrease. The intra-burst frequency of infant sucking was 2.3, 2.46, and 2.5 Hz on average for a relative hunger index of 0.67, 0.83, and 1.0, respectively. The NNS pressure of infant sucking was 6.31, 4.51, and 2.62 kPa on average for a relative hunger index of 0.67, 0.83, and 1.0, respectively. This study's results suggest that during NNS assessments, the measurement time should consider the next feeding schedule for the infant.

SmartLact8: A Bio-Inspired Robotic Breast Pump for Customized and Comfort Milk Expression.

According to the 2018 National Immunization Survey conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 83.9% of the breastfeeding mothers in the United States have used a breast pump at least once. However, the majority of existing products use a vacuum-only mechanism to extract milk. This causes common breast injuries such as nipple soreness, breast-tissue damage, and lactation complications after pumping. The objective of this work was to develop a bio-inspired breast pump prototype, named as SmartLac8, that can mimic infant suckling patterns. The input vacuum pressure pattern and compression forces are inspired from term infants' natural oral suckling dynamics captured in prior clinical experiments. Open-loop input-output data are used to perform system identification for two different pumping stages that facilitates controller design for closed-loop stability and control. A physical breast pump prototype with soft pneumatic actuators and custom piezoelectric sensors was successfully developed, calibrated, and tested in dry lab experiments. Compression and vacuum pressure dynamics were successfully coordinated to mimic the infant's feeding mechanism. Experimental data on sucking frequency and pressure on the breast phantom were consistent with clinical findings.

Assessment of the effects of digit sucking habit on the masticatory musculature using motion mode Ultrasonography

Objective : This study assessed the effect of active digit sucking on muscle thickness and fractional shortening of the masseter, lateral pterygoid, and temporalis in a population of Nigerian children using motion mode ultrasonography.Methods : The sample consisted of 100 selected children aged 7-12 years, divided into two equal groups of digit sucking and nonsucking. Participants were matched for age groups and gender. Ultrasonography evaluation (2 D and motion mode) of the masticatory muscles was performed using a linear probe of 7.5 MHz. The muscle thickness at contraction/relaxation and fractional shortening was determined. Independent t-test, Pearson correlation coefficient, and Two-way ANOVA were used for data analysis.Results : Whilst temporalis and lateral pterygoid muscles demonstrated a significant increase in thickness during relaxation (p<0.0001), a significant reduction in fractional shortening was observed (p<0.0001) in the sucking when compared to the non-sucking group.Similarly, only the temporalis muscle was significantly reduced during the contraction phase (p<0.01). For masseter mid-belly, both right and left sides in digit sucking subjects showed a significant increase in the thickness at contraction. At the same time, a reduction was observed in fractional shortening (p<0.05). Males and females with digit habit showed significantly greater muscle thickness in temporalis and lateral pterygoid during contraction and relaxation phases, whereas a reduction was observed in fractional shortening. Significant associations were observed between the frequency of sucking and muscle thickness in masseter and temporalis in fractional shortening (p<0.05).Conclusion : Our findings corroborate the assumption that persistent digit sucking in children can affect the morphology and function of the masticatory muscles.

Resistance factors of pecky rice incidence caused by the rice stink bugs (Leptocorisa chinensis, Nezara viridula) in rice line CRR-99-95W

ABSTRACT Pecky rice incidence caused by rice stink bugs greatly decreases the quality of rice grain and has come a big problem not only in Japan but also many other rice producing countries recently. In this study, antixenosis and tolerance were examined as the factors of resistance to rice stink bugs attack of rice line CRR-99-95 W. Two experiments were conducted to determine a possibility of antixenosis involvement as a factor of the resistance in CRR-99-95 W. The results showed no correlation between the number of Leptocorisa chinensis parasites and pecky rice incidence. Furthermore, no significant difference was found between the sucking frequency of Nezara viridula on mature husks of CRR-99-95 W and that on the check genotypes. These results suggest that CRR-99-95 W does not exhibit antixenosis effect against rice stink bugs. Then, to examine the tolerance factor involved in the resistance mechanism, the husks structures were analyzed. The results showed that the packing ratio of cell wall of the sclerenchyma fibers in the palea tended to be higher in CRR-99-95-W compared to the check genotype. In addition, the width of the hook openness of the palea of CRR-99-95 W was narrower than that of the check genotype. Such morphological characteristic of CRR-99-95 W may play an important role in its resistance against stink bug attack.

Morphological and functional abnormalities of the orofacial sphere associated with thumb sucking in children aged 3 to 10 years old in Yaounde, Cameroon.

Introductionthumb sucking is one of the most common oral habits in infants and children. In our context, little is known about the effects of prolonged thumb sucking on the orofacial sphere. Objective: determine the prevalence of thumb sucking and, identify the morphologic and functional abnormalities of the orofacial sphere associated with the duration and frequency of thumb sucking in children aged 3 to 10 years.Methodsa cross-sectional and analytical study was carried out in the pediatric units of the District Hospitals of Biyem-assi and Efoulan from February to June 2020 in children aged 3 to 10 years. Recruitment was consecutive, not probabilistic. After obtaining informed parental consent, a clinical examination was performed and the criteria retained were based on the ANGLE classification of the malocclusions. Socio-demographic, socio-economic, clinical characteristics were collected and morphological and functional abnormalities were observed. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software version 23.0. The significance threshold was set at 5%.Resultsof the 116 enrolled children; 74 girls (63.79%) and 42 boys (36.21%) with a mean age of 4.80 ± 0.5 years. The highest proportion of thumb sucking was found in firstborn children (n=46, 39.65%), and in those who breastfed for less than 6 months (n=99, 85.62%). The prevalence of thumb sucking was 17.4%. Using the multivariate analysis, class II division 1 canine occlusion [OR=1.52 (1.27-2.68), p=0.03] and decreased overbite [OR=4.5 (2.5-9.3), p=0.001] while class II division 1 canine occlusion [OR=2.59 (1.3-10.1), p=0.009] and increased overjet [OR=1.89 (1.06-6.75), p=0.005] were independent morphologic abnormalities significantly associated with the frequency and the duration of thumb sucking respectively. There was no association between the duration and frequency of thumb sucking and the functional abnormalities.Conclusionthumb sucking is more common in girls and the likelihood of thumb sucking decreases with age. The prevalence of thumb sucking was 17.4%. The malocclusions observed in our population are class II division 1 canine relationship, decreased overbite and increased overjet.

Change of milk compositions and sucking frequency in South American tapir during the course of lactation

Change of milk compositions and sucking frequency in South American tapir during the course of lactation

Effect of udder morphology on milk yield and suckling behaviour of patanwadi lambs

A study was conducted to determine the relationship between udder traits, milk yield and lamb suckling behaviour in Patanwadi lambs (n=30) during August to October 2019. The mean body condition score was significantly (p<0.05) less at 40 and 60 days of lactation The average udder tissue content score, udder circumference, udder depth and udder width showed significant (p<0.05) difference between 1st (4.37±0.14, 41.80±0.87cm, 16.90±0.53 cm and 14.93±0.28 cm) and 60th (3.23±0.10, 35.47±0.73 cm, 14.33±0.33 cm and 13.43±0.27 cm) days of lactation. The total sucking duration, sucking frequency, sucking bout, suckling bout frequency, mean bout duration and hindering attempts by dam significantly (p<0.01) decreased from 1st (5.24±0.22, 4.49±0.20/min, 9.16±0.39, 2.62±0.14/min, 45.27±2.09 sec and 1.30±0.31no) to 60th (1.60±0.11, 1.59±0.11/min, 3.67±0.17, 0.94±0.07/min, 18.01±1.61sec and 7.33±0.31) day of lactation while number of sucking attempts non-significantly decreased during the same period. The average daily milk yield of sheep significantly (p<0.01) decreased from 897±35.47g in 1st day to 686±33.56g in 60th day of lactation. The total sucking duration, sucking number and frequency, sucking bout number and frequency and mean bout duration were significantly (p<0.05) correlated with milk yield, udder tissue content and overall shape or suspension of udder. It was inferred that udder conformation and morphology affect suckling behaviour of lambs, dams having symmetrical, wider and capacious udders with clear demarcation between left and right mammary quarters favoured longer sucking durations with a greater number and longer sucking bouts in lambs.

Measurement of frequency of sucking in rubber teat-fed dairy calves using an accelerometer attached on the neck-collar

Measurement of frequency of sucking in rubber teat-fed dairy calves using an accelerometer attached on the neck-collar

Nipple shield use does not impact sucking dynamics in breastfeeding infants of mothers with nipple pain.

Nipple shields (shield) may reduce pain during breastfeeding, but the impact on infant sucking dynamics is not known. We examined the effects of shield use on sucking dynamics, milk removal and nipple pain in two groups of breastfeeding dyads: pain group (PG): shield used for nipple pain; comparison group (CG): no breastfeeding difficulties. Twenty PG (6 ± 4 weeks postnatal) and 28 CG dyads (8 ± 6 weeks postnatal) attended 2 monitored breastfeeding sessions with shield use randomised. Within-subject outcomes were compared. PG: shield use did not affect intra-oral vacuum (peak p = 0.17, baseline p = 0.59), sucking frequency (p = 0.20) or milk transfer (40 mL vs 48 mL, p = 0.80; percentage of available milk removed (PAMR) 55% vs 57%, p = 0.88), and reduced McGill pain scores (p = 0.012). CG: shield use increased non-nutritive sucking (10% more, p = 0.049), and reduced nutritive sucking (18% less, p = 0.017) and milk transfer (63 mL vs 31 mL p < 0.001, PAMR 65% vs 36% p < 0.001). For both groups, feeding duration increased by 2 min (p < 0.0001) and non-nutritive portions of the feed increased with shield use.Conclusion: Nipple shield use improved maternal comfort and did not impact milk removal or sucking strength in PG, but significantly reduced milk transfer and nutritive sucking in CG. What is Known: • Mothers report that nipple shields reduce nipple pain and enable continued breastfeeding. • Concerns that nipple shield use may reduce milk transfer and alter infant sucking patterns are based on limited published evidence. What is New: • Nipple shield use is associated with a 25% reduction in pain scores in breastfeeding mothers with chronic nipple pain. • Milk transfer is not reduced in dyads that regularly use a shield for chronic nipple pain. • Intra-oral vacuums are not impacted by nipple shield use in mothers experiencing pain.

Quantifying the Impact of Common Feeding Interventions on Nutritive Sucking Performance Using a Commercially Available Smart Bottle.

An estimated 25% to 40% of infants experience difficulties with learning to breast- or bottle-feed. Yet, guidelines and evidence-based support for common feeding practices are limited. The objective of this case report was to quantify the impact of feeding interventions on nutritive sucking performance after discharge in an outpatient setting. This observational case series involved 2 infants. To determine the impact of cumulative interventions, pre- and postintervention effect sizes were calculated. Sucking performance metrics of interest included nipple movement peak sucking amplitude, duration, frequency, and smoothness. Interventions included positional changes and changes in nipple flow rate, among others. For both infants, cumulative interventions had the greatest impact on suck frequency; postintervention, infants were able to increase their rate of nutritive sucking per burst. Other aspects of sucking performance were differentially impacted for each baby. Researchers agree that neonatal and infant feeding has been understudied and that the evidence for common interventions needs to be strengthened. We have demonstrated the implementation of readily available technology that can be used to quantify the direct impact of any intervention on actual sucking performance. In doing so, we can individualize care to support skill development and improve outcomes for infants at risk for ongoing feeding challenges.

A comparison of the nutritive sucking performance of full term and preterm neonates at hospital discharge: A prospective study

BackgroundStudies show that 40% to 70% of premature infants exhibit both immature and atypical feeding ability. To establish thresholds of performance and develop efficacious treatments for initiating and advancing oral feedings, we must first identify the nutritive sucking performance measures impacted by preterm birth. AimsTo compare objective measures of neonatal nutritive sucking between full term and preterm infants at hospital discharge. Study design and methodsThis was a prospective observational study including full term (FT; N = 32) and preterm (PT; N = 44) infants. Nutritive sucking performance at discharge was assessed. The outcome measures of interest were means and coefficients of variability of nutritive sucking peak amplitude, frequency, duration, and smoothness, and feeding-related length of stay. ResultsThere was a significant difference in sucking performance between groups; FT infants demonstrated significantly lower mean suck frequency, with longer suck duration and greater suck smoothness as compared to PT. PT infants had significantly less variability in suck amplitude and frequency as compared to FT, while FT infants had significantly less variability in suck smoothness as compared to PT. Post hoc regression analyses found suck frequency alone accounted for 28% of the variance in feeding length of stay for PT; suck smoothness alone accounted for 34% of the variance in feeding length of stay for FT. ConclusionsSuck frequency may be an important intervention target for PT infants having difficulty transitioning to oral feeding. Suck smoothness may be a sensitive marker for identifying infants at high risk for feeding challenges.

Effect of follow-up home-based oromotor stimulation on breastfeeding performance in preterm low-birth-weight infants: A randomized control trial

BACKGROUND: In preterm neonates, feeding problems are recognized as a challenging issue. Immaturity of the oromotor system, inability to generate a suck-swallow-breath pattern, and poor motor development are few factors contributing to feeding difficulties. Oromotor stimulation is one of the various techniques used to enhance breastfeeding in infants which is frequently given in hospitals. However, the effect of oromotor stimulation is given as a home-based program has not been studied. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of home-based oromotor stimulation on weight, sucking frequency, duration of transition from spoon-feeding to breastfeeding, and Latch breastfeeding assessment in preterm low-birth-weight infants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A randomized control trial was done on 40 preterm low-birth-weight infants where they were divided equally into intervention and control groups. Weight, Latch scores, and sucking frequency were noted at baseline. Routine Newborn Intensive Care Unit (NICU) care was given to infants in the control group whereas oromotor stimulation was given for 21 days as a home-based program to the intervention group. The outcome measures were evaluated on the 7th and the 21st day. RESULTS: Oromotor stimulation improved the sucking frequency, Latch scores, and hastened the transition from spoon-feeding to breastfeeding as compared to the controlled group (P 0.05). CONCLUSION: The present study concludes that home-based oromotor stimulation program is effective in improving sucking frequency, Latch scores, and duration of transition from spoon-feeding to breastfeeding in preterm low-birth-weight infants, although no significant changes were seen in the rate of weight gain between the groups. Oromotor stimulation should be added along with routine NICU care for preterm low-birth-weight infants to improve the breastfeeding performance.

Sucking behaviour using feeding teats with and without an anticolic system: a randomized controlled clinical trial

This study aimed to investigate differences in sucking behavior of infants bottle-fed with vented (so-called anticolic) teats (VTs) and nonvented teats (NVTs). Trial design: Prospective, randomized clinical trial. Ninety-six term, healthy infants (aged 1–8 months) were assessed for eligibility. Seventy-three infants remained for intention-to-treat (ITT) and 65 infants (vented group: n = 31; nonvented group: n = 34) for the per-protocol (PP) analysis. During bottle-feeding, sucks/min, pauses/min, amount of formula intake (mL), feeding time (min), heart rate (bpm), respiratory rate (bpm), and oxygen saturation (%) were recorded. In addition, a parental survey was carried out to reveal possible symptoms of infantile colic. Sample-size calculation and confirmatory and exploratory analyses were performed using the Mann-Whitney U test and Fisher’s exact test. Except for the parameter sucking pauses per minute (NVTs > VTs, p = .03), no differences between groups were found with the ITT and PP analysis. After excluding infants with a disproportionately complementary diet (subgroup analysis, infants aged 1–6 months, n = 54) the primary outcome (sucks per minute) showed significant differences (NVTs > VTs, p = .01). The amount of formula intake, feeding time, and cardiorespiratory parameters were similar in both groups. The parental survey did not show any relation between types of feeding teats and possible symptoms of infantile colic. Compared with an NVT group, infants aged 1–6 months need fewer sucks and pauses when fed with VTs. In both groups, equal amounts of feeding medium and feeding time were observed. With NVT feeding, disruption occurs when the bottle vacuum is released by air from the oral cavity. Therefore, higher sucking frequency is needed to rebuild the oral vacuum for bottle milk flow, which implies higher risk of aerophagia. Overall, we suggest that the VTs provided a more coordinated drinking pattern than did the NVTs, which may have a positive effect on gastric distress. Trial Registration: DRKS-Trial Registration No. DRK4885. Registered April 16, 2013. Universal Trial No. U1111–1141-5857.

영유아의 구강위생용품 사용 실태 및 영향 요인

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors affecting the use of oral hygiene products in infants. Methods: From October 2015 to December 2015, astructured questionnaire survey was conducted for infants and parents about the infants' oral hygiene product use from 0 to 4 years of age in Seoul and other metropolitan areas. Results: The use of oral tissues for infants and children was more frequent in infants, with less than four uses of oral tissues per 10 infants. The overall amount of toothpaste usage among infants was lower than those of infants whose parents are high school or college graduates. The number of oral tissues used per infant per week was less among infants who sucked less than 4 times per 10 infants. The frequency of use of infant mouthwash per week in every 10 infants was less than those who swallow mouthwash less than once. The number of mouth rinses after the use of oral tissues for infants was high in boys, and the number of infants who sucked oral tissues was less than 4 times when used 10 times. The number of mouth rinses after the use of toothpaste was less for infants with college-graduate parents. The factors affecting the number of mouth rinsings after using oral tissues for infants were gender and sucking frequency. Conclusions: In this study, the oral hygiene products for infants were found to differ and affect the usage, the frequency of use, and the number of mouth rinses according to the general characteristics of infants' and parents and the use of oral hygiene products.

Do orally-directed behaviors mediate the relationship between behavioral state and nutritive sucking in preterm infants?

Studies show that 40% to 70% of premature infants exhibit both immature and atypical feeding ability. To establish thresholds of performance and develop efficacious treatments for initiating and advancing oral feedings, we must first identify the nutritive sucking performance measures impacted by preterm birth.To compare objective measures of neonatal nutritive sucking between full term and preterm infants at hospital discharge.This was a prospective observational study including full term (FT; N = 32) and preterm (PT; N = 44) infants. Nutritive sucking performance at discharge was assessed. The outcome measures of interest were means and coefficients of variability of nutritive sucking peak amplitude, frequency, duration, and smoothness, and feeding-related length of stay.There was a significant difference in sucking performance between groups; FT infants demonstrated significantly lower mean suck frequency, with longer suck duration and greater suck smoothness as compared to PT. PT infants had significantly less variability in suck amplitude and frequency as compared to FT, while FT infants had significantly less variability in suck smoothness as compared to PT. Post hoc regression analyses found suck frequency alone accounted for 28% of the variance in feeding length of stay for PT; suck smoothness alone accounted for 34% of the variance in feeding length of stay for FT.Suck frequency may be an important intervention target for PT infants having difficulty transitioning to oral feeding. Suck smoothness may be a sensitive marker for identifying infants at high risk for feeding challenges.

Current self-efficacy and its influencing factors analysis of breastfeeding among puerperas after delivering

Objective To investigate current self-efficacy and its influencing factors of breastfeeding among puerperas after delivering, so as to provide scientific evidence for formulating interventions. Methods The general information questionnaire, self-rating depressive scale (SDS), social support revalued scale (SSRS), breast feeding knowledge scale, breastfeeding self-efficacy scale-short form were used to survey 815 delivered puerperas in Shanghai First Maternity and Infant Hospital from May to September 2014, and the influencing factors of breastfeeding self efficacy had been carried out single factor analysis and multiple regression analysis. Results The scores of SDS for 815 puerperas were from 25 to 71 with average score (44.14±8.865); the scores of SSRS were from 23 to 63 with average score (43.03±6.428); the scores of breastfeed knowledge scale were from 51 to 125 with average score (99.40±12.299); the scores of breastfeeding self-efficacy scale-short form were from 14 to 70 with average score (49.73±10.713). The correlation analysis represented that the breastfeeding self-efficacy for delivered pureperas was negatively correlated with postpartum depression (P<0.01), but it was positively correlated with SSRS and breastfeeding knowledge (P<0.01); multiple regression analysis obtained that predictive factors of breastfeeding self-efficacy included delivery method, using feeding bottle during hospitalization, sucking frequency everyday during hospitalization, planned feeding method, planned length of breastfeeding, postpartum depression, and social support level. Conclusions The level of breastfeeding self-efficacy of this group is in medium level, so medical department can focus on these influencing factors to take targeted actions to improve the breastfeeding self-efficacy, then enhance breastfeeding rate to protect the health of mothers and infants. Key words: Breastfeeding; Self-efficacy; Depression; Social support; Influencing factors; Puerpera

An automatized system for the assessment of nutritive sucking behavior in infants: a preliminary analysis on term neonates.

Nutritive Sucking (NS) is a highly organized process that can reflect infants' maturation during the early post-natal period. The assessment of NS may provide a sensitive means of evaluating early motor skills and their development. Thus, a reliable tool for assessing sucking behavior may benefit diagnostics and treatment of newborns since the first days of life. The aim of this work is to propose an automatized system to measure sucking ability and calculate a set of objective and quantitative indices for its assessment. We focused on the analysis of the Intraoral Pressure (IP) generated by infants while feeding: an ad-hoc designed software application was developed to analyze the signal obtained by a pressure transducer connected with a catheter placed through a standard bottle teat into the oral cavity during feeding. Automatic algorithms for suck and burst identification and for their characterization are described. We carried out a preliminary test of the system, analyzing data from two healthy term newborns, tested twice over time (1-2 days old and 6-10 weeks later). We calculated a set of different sucking parameters (e.g. sucking amplitude, frequency and area), and proposed some indices, that are typically used for the assessment of motor control, in order to assess the smoothness of IP. Results encourage further investigation of the proposed system for monitoring the development of early sucking skills.

Variation in the timing and frequency of sucking and swallowing over an entire feeding session in the infant pig Sus scrofa.

Feeding is a rhythmic behavior that consists of several component cycle types. How the timing of these cycles changes over a complete feeding sequence is not well known. To test the hypothesis that cycle frequency/duration changes as a function of time spent feeding, we examined complete feeding sequences in six infant pigs, using EMG of mylohyoid and thyrohyoid as cycle markers. We measured the instantaneous frequency of sucking and of swallowing cycles in 19 sequences. Each sequence contained three qualitatively distinctive phases of sucking frequency. Phase 1 started with cycles at a very high frequency and quickly dropped to a more constant level with low variation, which characterized phase 2. Phase 3 had a steady level of frequency but was interspersed with a number of high- or low-frequency cycles. Each phase differed from the others in patterns of within-phase variation and among-phase variation. Phase 2 had the least variation, and phase 3 had the largest range of frequencies. The number of sucks per swallow also differed among phases. These patterns, which characterize normative feeding, could indicate a physiologic basis in satiation. In human infant clinical studies, where data collection is often limited, these results indicated the utility of collecting data in different phases. Finally, these results can be used as a template or pattern with which to assess clinically compromised infants.