Subtropical Regions Of Asia Research Articles

PENGENALAN STRUKTUR DAN SIFAT FISIK BAHAN PRODUK TANAMAN BAMBU PADA KELOMPOK TANI DESA URENG, KABUPATEN MALUKU TENGAH

Bamboo is a non-timber forest product that is abundant in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, thriving in areas with high rainfall. In Indonesia, bamboo can be found in lowland to mountainous areas, typically growing in open spaces. In Ureng Village, bamboo has yet to significantly contribute to improving the local community’s welfare. One of the main factors limiting the optimal utilization of bamboo is the lack of knowledge regarding the physical properties and characteristics of bamboo wood, which could be processed into various economically valuable products. This activity aimed to provide education on the structure and properties of bamboo wood to enhance the economic value for the Ureng Village community. The results show that participants were highly enthusiastic about learning the properties and structure of bamboo wood, which can enable them to utilize bamboo as a substitute for timber.

Divergent dynamics of coastal wetlands in the world’s major river deltas during 1990–2019

Coastal wetlands provide vital dynamic ecosystem services. They have become increasingly important after being linked to several sustainable developmental goals, resulting in a focus on their protection, management, and restoration. Therefore, there is an increasing need to detect and compare coastal wetland spatiotemporal dynamics in deltas at a global scale. In this study, we mapped and characterized coastal wetland spatiotemporal patterns for 1990–2019 in the world’s major river deltas using pixel frequency algorithms and Landsat-4/5 (TM), −7 (ETM + ), −8 (OLI), and Sentinel-2 (MSI) time-series imagery obtained from Google Earth Engine (GEE). Our map had a high overall accuracy (91.84 %) for 2019. Tidal flats were primarily distributed in North America (∼6.87 %) and Asia (∼5.91 %), whereas salt marshes were more commonly found in North America (∼45.39 %) and South America (∼10.61 %). Mangroves are more common in South America (∼11.86 %) and Asia (∼5.83 %), primarily because of the Amazon River Delta and tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, which host several large river deltas. South America had the largest coastal delta wetland area (798,569 km2), followed by Asia (640,251 km2), North America (581,977 km2), Africa (181,977 km2), Europe (140,759 km2), and Oceania (15,915 km2). There was a minor difference in the distribution of wetland vegetation and tidal flats in Asian coastal deltas, and the wetland vegetation area in Asia was greater than that in tidal flats on other continents. We found that the coastal wetland areas increased during 1990–2001, decreased during 2001–2012, and steadily increased during 2012–2019. Our study provides a baseline for monitoring the area, status, and health of the coastal wetlands in these river deltas.

Antimicrobial Effect of Passiflora foetida Leaf Extract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical global health concern under the present clinical scenario due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in both medical and agricultural sectors. Passiflora foetida, commonly known as wild maracuja or stinking passion flower belongs to the Passifloraceae family and is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia, and America. In this study, we aimed to explore the potential antimicrobial efficacy of Passiflora foetida leaf extract against both MDR bacteria and American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) strains for possible combating microbial infections in the future. The MIC value of Passiflora foetida extract varied between 5-10 mg/ml in different ATCC and MDR bacteria studied in this experiment. Passiflora foetida is also well known in traditional medicine indicating a degree of safety and efficacy, although modern scientific validation is necessary to support its therapeutic applications. Future research should focus on identifying the specific bioactive agent responsible for its antimicrobial effects, optimizing extraction methods to maximize bioavailability, and evaluating its safety and efficacy in animal models and clinical trials. Understanding the antimicrobial properties of Passiflora foetida is crucial for developing effective therapeutic strategies against antibiotic-resistant infections. By harnessing the natural antimicrobial potential of this plant, researchers may uncover new treatment options to combat AMR and improve patient outcomes. The findings of this study indicated its possible use as a topical application at present till further study with refined extract may reveal its application in vivo in different diseases with MDR microorganisms.

Comparative metabolite analysis of Piper sarmentosum organs approached by LC–MS-based metabolic profiling

Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (Piperaceae) is a traditional medicinal and food plant widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, offering both health and culinary benefits. In this study the secondary metabolites in different organs of P. sarmentosum were identified and their relative abundances were characterized. The metabolic profiles of leaves, roots, stems and fruits were comprehensively investigated by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS) and the data subsequently analyzed using multivariate statistical methods. Manual interpretation of the tandem mass spectrometric (MS/MS) fragmentation patterns revealed the presence of 154 tentatively identified metabolites, mostly represented by alkaloids and flavonoids. Principle component analysis and hierarchical clustering indicated the predominant occurrence of flavonoids, lignans and phenyl propanoids in leaves, aporphines in stems, piperamides in fruits and lignan-amides in roots. Overall, this study provides extensive data on the metabolite composition of P. sarmentosum, supplying useful information for bioactive compounds discovery and patterns of their preferential biosynthesis or storage in specific organs. This can be used to optimize production and harvesting as well as to maximize the plant’s economic value as herbal medicine or in food applications.Graphical

Comparative Analysis of Chloroplast Genomes for the Genus Manglietia Blume (Magnoliaceae): Molecular Structure and Phylogenetic Evolution.

Manglietia Blume, belonging to the Magnoliaceae family and mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, has great scientific and economic value. In this study, we employed next-generation sequencing followed by de novo assembly to investigate the adaptive evolution of Manglietia using plastid genetic information. We newly sequenced the complete or nearly complete plastomes of four Manglietia species (Manglietia aromatica, Manglietia calcarea, Manglietia kwangtungensis, and Manglietia glauca) and conducted comparative analysis with seventeen published plastomes to examine the evolutionary pattern within this genus. The plastomes of these five newly sequenced Manglietia species range from 157,093 bp (M. calcarea2) to 160,493 bp (M. kwangtungensis), all exhibiting circular structures when mapped. Nucleotide diversity was observed across the plastomes, leading us to identify 13 mutational hotspot regions, comprising eight intergenic spacer regions and five gene regions. Our phylogenetic analyses based on 77 protein-coding genes generated phylogenetic relationships with high support and resolution for Manglietia. This genus can be divided into three clades, and the previously proposed infrageneric classifications are not supported by our studies. Furthermore, the close affinity between M. aromatica and M. calcarea is supported by the present work, and further studies are necessary to conclude the taxonomic treatment for the latter. These results provide resources for the comparative plastome, breeding, and plastid genetic engineering of Magnoliaceae and flowering plants.

Short Communication: Mosquito Histone 2A Protein Facilitate Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection in the Mosquito.

Japanese encephalitis virus is mainly prevalent in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Oceania. Through immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry analysis using monoclonal antibodies targeting JEV E protein, we found that mosquito Histone 2A protein could bind to JEV particles. The binding of H2A and JEV was detected in the salivary gland and supernatant of mosquito cells. Furthermore, RNA interference experiments in vitro and in vivo confirmed that H2A protein promotes JEV infection in mosquitoes. In summary, we found that mosquito H2A is a factor that supports JEV infection and can potentially facilitate cross-species transmission of JEV.

Identification of Orthosiphon stamineus from different phytogeographical zones in Indonesia by FTIR-fingerprinting and chemometrics

Orthosiphon stamineus (OS) or cat’s whiskers (Lamiaceae) is one of the herbs broadly used as raw materials for functional food and traditional remedies, for it contains phenolic acids and flavonoids. OS grows well in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. Phytogeographical characteristics are among many variables that greatly control plant growth and phytochemical content. This research was conducted to analyze and classify 14 samples of OS leaves from different regions in Indonesia according to phytogeographic profiles using a combination of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) fingerprinting and chemometrics, i.e., principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA). The first two PCs were used to show the grouping of 14 samples with a cumulative variance at 91%. Results showed that all samples had comparable FTIR spectra showing the stretching frequencies of O-H, C-H, and C=C bonds. Further discrimination with PCA and CA was able to classify them into four groups of different phytogeographical origins: group 1 comprised OS samples from Tawangmangu, Mojokerto, Batu, Sampang, Madiun, South Jakarta, Jombang, Surabaya, Kediri, and Ngawi, group 2 from Lampung and Gresik, group 3 from Badung, and group 4 from Kotabaru. Thus, it can be inferred that FTIR fingerprinting combined with chemometrics can distinguish between OS crude drugs from different locations. Introducing a wider variety of OS analytical methods is believed to positively influence the flexibility and ease of quality control of herbal ingredients, ultimately ensuring the safety and efficacy of herbal medicinal products.

Analysis of Antimicrobial Activity of Sapindus trifoliatus L.

Abstract: 
 
 Sapindus trifoliatus L. is an extremely valuable medicinal plant distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Plant extracts appear to be one of the better alternatives as they are known to have a minimal environmental impact and danger to consume in contrast to synthetic pesticides. The seed extracts of Sapindus trifoliatus L. exhibited activity against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antimicrobial activity of each plant extract was tested against bacterial and fungal organisms
 I.e. Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
 E.coli. Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavous and Fusarium spp.
 The antimicrobial activity was done for Chloroform, Ethyl Alcohol, Petroleum Ether, Acetone and Aqueous extracts. The study revealed that the ethanolic extract of the pericarp of Sapindus trifoliatus L. showed positive prominent antibacterial activity against E.coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The ethanol extract showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus fumigates and Aspergillus niger at 100% plant extract. The inhibitory activity of the various seed extracts like Chloroform, Acetone, Petroleum ether, Ethyl alcohol and aqueous were observed.

Review on Bioactive Compounds and Pharmacological Properties of Cleome rutidosperma DC

Cleome rutidosperma DC., a species of flowering plant in the Cleomaceae family, is commonly known as "fringed spider flower" or "purple cleome". It is distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. The plant species is widely utilized in folk medicinal practices. According to traditional medicinal reports, the plant has been used to alleviate pain, spasms, and skin diseases, as well as to reduce symptoms of deafness, earaches, and convulsions. This study aims to consolidate the available information on traditional medicine, botanical aspects, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of C. rutidosperma. Published articles on this species since 2000 were comprehensively analyzed. Databases, such as Google Scholar, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed, were employed. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that C. rutidosperma possesses various bioactivities, including analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects. Multiple phytochemicals have been identified in the plant. These phytoconstituents could contribute to the high antioxidant properties and multiple bioactivities of C. rutidosperma that hold great potential for human health

Extraction, structural properties, and bioactivities of Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) isothiocyanates: A review

Moringa, a medicinal and edible plant, is rich in extremely high levels of nutrients and several active ingredients. Moringa isothiocyanates (MITC) are the key bioactive components of Moringa, which could be utilized in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This review aims to highlight the research progress in the extraction methods, isolation and purification processes of MITC. The structure properties of MITC and the metabolism of the compounds are described in detail. The bioactivities of MITC are summarized as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, relieve pain, anti-obesity potential, and other activities. In order to bring MITC into the food and pharmaceutical fields as early as possible, bioavailability, safety and toxicity deserve high attention. Therefore, six sections are reviewed in terms of extraction, structural properties, bioactivity, structure-bioactivity and bioavailability relationships of MITC, safety and toxicity, and applications in food and biomedical industries. It is expected that the mass production of MITC, which originated in India and is distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Central America, will be achieved on a larger scale and that new insights will be gained for the development of new resource foods and new clinical drugs.

Evaluation of Gmelina Arborea (Roxb) Germplasm for Qualitative Traits and Insect Pest Resistance in Natural and Planted Population Populations of Madhya Pradesh, India

Gmelina arborea Roxb., a fast-growing tree species native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, has garnered attention for its potential in wood-based industries. However, its large-scale plantation in Madhya Pradesh, India, faces significant challenges. This study investigates the prevalent diseases and pests, bole form and branching habit of Gmelina arborea among different populations in Madhya Pradesh. Eextensive field surveys were carried out to identify the natural and planted populations of Gmelina arborea. Based on these surveys three natural populations viz Betul, Mandla and Jabalpur Population and five planted populations Sonaghati, Badhaura, Saraswahi, Neemkheda and Barha were selected for the present investigation. Observations of the bole form of trees was recorded visually as Crooked, less crooked, nearly straight, straight. Branch angle was visually observed and observation is recorded 300, 450, 600 and 900. Disease and pest incidence was visually assessed and intensity of the observations are recorded as Heavy infection, Moderate infection, Low infestation, A healthy tree with no attack. Considerable variation among the qualitative traits was observed among population under study. most straight and nearly straight trees found in planted population than natural populations. 900 and 600 branch angles were observed more in plantation than natural populations. More no of healthy tree and tree with low infestation was observed in plantation. Agroclimatic zones of Satpura plateau performs better for bole form. Kymore plateau and Satpura hills agroclimatic zones performs well in case of branching angle and health status. Northen hill zones of Chhattisgarh underperforms as far as qualitative traits are concerned.

RSM modelling and optimization for performance evaluation of biodiesel production process from livistona jenkinsiana using NaOH as a catalyst

The production of biodiesel from conventional vegetable oils is limited by the high cost and competition with food supply. Therefore, there is a need to explore new and underutilized feedstocks that can provide abundant and low-cost oil for biodiesel production. Livistona jenkinsiana is a palm species that grows in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. It produces oil-rich fruits that are usually discarded as waste. In this work, biodiesel was produced from Livistona jenkinsiana through transesterification reaction, and the parametric analysis was carried out. The process parameters such as reaction temperature, molar ratio, reaction time, and catalyst amount were studied, and yield (Y) was modelled using response surface methodology (RSM) as a modelling tool in MINITAB@17.1.0 software. A second-order RSM model for biodiesel yield was developed as a function of temperature, catalyst, and the molar ratio, which could predict the biodiesel yield. ANOVA results showed that temperature, catalyst, and molar ratio played an important role in the transesterification process. The optimization result showed that the optimal conditions were attained at a temperature of 61.78 °C, methanol to oil molar ratio 9.25:1, and catalyst concentration of 0.86 wt%. The highest biodiesel yield predicted was 94.47%. The reaction was carried out at a constant reaction speed of 500 rpm for 1.5 h of reaction time. The physicochemical properties of the produced biodiesel indicate that the biodiesel from Livistona jenkinsiana oil (LJO) is ideal for the production of biodiesel.

How Does Mitochondrial Protein-Coding Gene Expression in Fejervarya kawamurai (Anura: Dicroglossidae) Respond to Extreme Temperatures?

Unusual climates can lead to extreme temperatures. Fejervarya kawamurai, one of the most prevalent anurans in the paddy fields of tropical and subtropical regions in Asia, is sensitive to climate change. The present study focuses primarily on a single question: how do the 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes (PCGs) respond to extreme temperature change compared with 25 °C controls? Thirty-eight genes including an extra tRNA-Met gene were identified and sequenced from the mitochondrial genome of F. kawamurai. Evolutionary relationships were assessed within the Dicroglossidae and showed that Dicroglossinae is monophyletic and F. kawamurai is a sister group to the clade of (F. multistriata + F. limnocharis). Transcript levels of mitochondrial genes in liver were also evaluated to assess responses to 24 h exposure to low (2 °C and 4 °C) or high (40 °C) temperatures. Under 2 °C, seven genes showed significant changes in liver transcript levels, among which transcript levels of ATP8, ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, and Cytb increased, respectively, and ND5 decreased. However, exposure to 4 °C for 24 h was very different in that the expressions of ten mitochondrial protein-coding genes, except ND1, ND3, and Cytb, were significantly downregulated. Among them, the transcript level of ND5 was most significantly downregulated, decreasing by 0.28-fold. Exposure to a hot environment at 40 °C for 24 h resulted in a marked difference in transcript responses with strong upregulation of eight genes, ranging from a 1.52-fold increase in ND4L to a 2.18-fold rise in Cytb transcript levels, although COI and ND5 were reduced to 0.56 and 0.67, respectively, compared with the controls. Overall, these results suggest that at 4 °C, F. kawamurai appears to have entered a hypometabolic state of hibernation, whereas its mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation was affected at both 2 °C and 40 °C. The majority of mitochondrial PCGs exhibited substantial changes at all three temperatures, indicating that frogs such as F. kawamurai that inhabit tropical or subtropical regions are susceptible to ambient temperature changes and can quickly employ compensating adjustments to proteins involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

Chromosome-level genome assembly and population genetic analysis of a near-threatened rosewood species (Dalbergia cultrata Pierre Graham ex Benth) provide insights into its evolutionary and cold stress responses.

Dalbergia cultrata Pierre Graham ex Benth (D. cultrata) is a precious rosewood tree species that grows in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. In this study, we used PacBio long-reading sequencing technology and Hi-C assistance to sequence and assemble the reference genome of D. cultrata. We generated 171.47 Gb PacBio long reads and 72.43 Gb Hi-C data and yielded an assembly of 10 pseudochromosomes with a total size of 690.99 Mb and Scaffold N50 of 65.76 Mb. The analysis of specific genes revealed that the triterpenoids represented by lupeol may play an important role in D. cultrata's potential medicinal value. Using the new reference genome, we analyzed the resequencing of 19 Dalbergia accessions and found that D. cultrata and D. cochinchinensis have the latest genetic relationship. Transcriptome sequencing of D. cultrata leaves grown under cold stress revealed that MYB transcription factor and E3 ubiquitin ligase may be playing an important role in the cold response of D. cultrata. Genome resources and identified genetic variation, especially those genes related to the biosynthesis of phytochemicals and cold stress response, will be helpful for the introduction, domestication, utilization, and further breeding of Dalbergia species.

Evaluation of Morphological Characteristics, Yield Potential, and Essential Oil Composition of Ocimum sanctum Genotypes for Crop Improvement

Ocimum sanctum, also known as Holy Basil, is an aromatic herb with a long history of use in traditional medicine. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and is now cultivated worldwide. Plants have erect, much-branched sub-shrub with simple opposite green or purple leaves that are strongly scented and hairy stems and leaves has a strong, characteristic aroma that occurs mainly because of the volatile oils present.
 In this experiment, 30 genotypes of Ocimum sanctum were evaluated for morphological, yield and quality traits. At nursery stage, germination percentage, seedling shoot length and seedling root lengths were recorded. Among the accessions. OS-22 exhibited the highest germination percentages (82%), Seedling shoot and root length were highest in Os-18 and OS 21 (35 cm and 11 cm) respectively. In the main field, the accessions were characterized for qualitative traits viz growth habit, leaf colour and stem colour. The accessions were grouped into two, based on growth habit. Based on stem and leaf colour the accessions were grouped into five and four groups respectively. In case of quantitative traits, plant height achieved maximum in the accession OS 22 (88cm) followed by OS 17(75cm). The accessions OS-15 and OS-22 exhibited more extensive plants spread, while OS-21 and OS-13 had higher number of primary branches. Accessions OS-20 and O S-23 recorded more number of leaves (409 and 422) and the accessions O S-22 and OS-11 recorded highest fresh leaf weight (370.2 g & 301.67 g). The essential oil recovery and oil yield was highest in the accession OS 20 (green type) followed by OS 22 (purple type). Characterization of oil in GCMS revealed that the key component was eugenol, which showed highest content in accession Os-20 (46 %). This study can be used for further crop improvement studies and breeding programs.

Phylogeography of the Asian green mussel, Perna viridis: pronounced regional genetic differentiation is explained by major freshwater input into the Bay of Bengal

The Asian green mussel (AGM), Perna viridis, is a mussel of ecological and economic importance throughout much of the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, from China and Korea in the east to Oman on the Arabian Peninsula in the west. We collated published DNA sequence data and then analysed 467 bp of cytochrome c oxidase I gene (COI) sequence variation from 649 mussels (576 from SE Asia and 73 from India) to test for regional differentiation. Analysis of molecular variation, a haplotype network and a neighbour-joining tree all revealed significant differentiation between mussels from India and those from SE Asia. We observed a greater number of segregating sites (haplotypes) and private haplotypes than expected for Indian mussels compared to SE Asian mussels, based on the respective sample sizes. Tests of neutrality revealed population expansion or a recent selective sweep for only the mussels from India. We suggest that the differentiation of the Indian from the SE Asian mussels is explained by the pronounced seasonal input of freshwater into the northern Bay of Bengal area, which acts as a (semi-permeable) barrier to gene flow between the two regions (i.e., east versus west of the Bay). This suggestion is based on the oceanography of the region and is consistent with the biogeography and reports of genetic breaks in a range of taxa in this region. Further targetted sampling of AGMs from the east coast of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar is required to test this hypothesis, and additional sampling of AGMs from west of India (e.g., Pakistan, Iran, the Arabian Peninsula) will also be informative. Finally, this study is based on the analysis of a single marker (COI) because this is all that is presently available from published sources but we note that the application of new molecular markers such as single nucleotide polymorphisms to newly collected mussel samples will greatly advance our understanding of the AGM genetic discontinuity and its age, and help test its geographical location and its nature (e.g., a steep/shallow cline or a stepped cline).

RESEARCH ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF HISTORIC PATTERNS OF OLD SUMMER RESORTS USING SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS: A CASE STUDY OF KULIANG IN FUZHOU, CHINA

Abstract. Since modern times, Western immigrants have constructed summer resorts in subtropical regions of Asia, resulting in a unique historical occurrence. These summer resorts have loose and flexible distributions that reflect the specific needs and aesthetic preferences of the developers. In the Kuliang summer resort in Fuzhou, China, the seemingly random distribution of buildings and historical landscapes actually conceals complex social relationships between the hosts and managers. This paper discovered that the expansion of housing distribution in Kuliang is closely related to the social network of residents. The research employed various technological methods such as social network analysis and geographic information systems to compute and process complex social relationships and big data. Their analysis has led to three conclusions: (1) The seemingly randomized distribution of buildings and historical landscapes in Kuliang is a result of social relationship development. (2) The formation of Kuliang's summer resort is correlated with the selection of "central members" in the community and has distinct temporal characteristics. (3) Information technology has great potential for the analysis of the formation process of cultural landscapes. These research findings provide important reference for the protection of cultural heritage and understanding the role of social relationships in shaping cultural landscapes.

An Overview of Diagnostic and Management Strategies for Talaromycosis, an Underrated Disease.

Underrated and neglected, talaromycosis is a life-threatening fungal disease endemic to the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. In China, it has been reported that talaromycosis mortality doubles from 24 to 50% when the diagnosis is delayed, and reaches 100% when the diagnosis is missed. Thus, the accurate diagnosis of talaromycosis is of utmost importance. Herein, in the first part of this article, we provide an extensive review of the diagnostic tools used thus far by physicians in the management of cases of talaromycosis. The challenges encountered and the perspectives which may aid in the discovery of more accurate and reliable diagnostic approaches are also discussed. In the second part of this review, we discuss the drugs used to prevent and treat T. marneffei infection. Alternative therapeutic options and potential drug resistance reported in the contemporary literature are also discussed. We aim to guide researchers towards the discovery of novel approaches to prevent, diagnose, and treat talaromycosis, and therefore improve the prognosis for those afflicted by this important disease.

First Report of Leaf Spot on Stephania tetrandra Caused by Albifimbria verrucaria in China.

Stephania tetrandra S. Moore belongs to the family Menispermaceae and is a Chinese medicinal plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. The root can be used for a variety of treatments (Jiang et al. 2020). In August 2021, leaf spot symptoms were observed on S. tetrandra cultivated in Jiangxi (114.456E, 27.379N, southern China). The disease symptoms included a slight constriction of the leaves, with irregularly shaped brown to black spots with well-defined borders. Severely affected leaves were shed by the plant. In order to determine the cause, symptomatic leaves were surface-disinfested with 0.6% NaOCl for 2 min, and rinsed twice in sterile water, then incubated on moist paper towels at 26°C in the dark for 2 days. Cream-colored sporodochia were observed within the leaf spots, turning dark green to black within 16 hours. A slow-growing white fungus was isolated from 95% of the samples (n = 30) on PDA. Dark green sporodochia emerged after 7 to 10 days of incubation, and released tip-end oval, non-septate, hyaline conidia measuring 6.7 to 8.5 μm (mean 7.5 μm, n = 50) by 2.0 to 3.3 μm (mean 2.7 μm, n = 50). Concentric rings were interspersed with sporodochia on the continually incubated mycelium. The morphological characteristics of the isolates matched the description of Albifimbria (Lombard et al. 2016). Nucleotide sequences, amplified from isolate FJL5C using primers of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) (White et al. 1990), calmodulin (cmdA; Carbone and Kohn 1999), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2; O'Donnell et al. 2007), were deposited in GenBank under accession numbers OM317911, OM386815, and OM386816. A BLASTn analysis of the sequences showed 100% identity with the type strain CBS 328.52 (Lombard et al. 2016) of Albifimbria verrucaria (syn. Myrothecium verrucaria) for ITS, and 99% for cmdA and rpb2 (KU845893, KU845875, and KU845931, respectively). A phylogenetic tree generated using the three sequences showed that the isolate from S. tetrandra grouped with the A. verrucaria isolates, but away from other species of Albifimbria. These results together with the lack of a pale luteus exudate produced by A. viridis (Lombard et al. 2016) implied that the isolate was A. verrucaria. The culture was deposited in Guangdong Microbial Culture Collection Center (GDMCC 3.716). To verify pathogenicity, conidial suspension (106 conidia/mL in 0.05% Tween 20 solution) was sprayed onto six healthy plants. Six other plants sprayed with the Tween 20 solution alone served as controls. All plants were incubated in the dark at 26°C and 95% humidity for 30 hours, then transferred to a greenhouse at 26°C and 12 hours of illumination per day for 2 to 3 days. Inoculated leaves developed similar symptoms to those described above, whereas control plants remained healthy. The same pathogen was isolated from the diseased leaves, with the same morphological and molecular traits as those from the field plants. This experiment fulfilled Koch's postulates and confirmed that A. verrucaria causes leaf spots on S. tetrandra. This pathogen has been reported to cause disease in a wide range of weeds, legumes, and crop plants (Herman et al. 2020). To our knowledge, this is the first report of A. verrucaria causing leaf spots on S. tetrandra in natural or controlled environments. The disease can seriously threaten S. tetrandra on growth and yield loss.

First reliable Miocene fossil winged fruits record of Engelhardia in Asia through anatomical investigation

Fossil genera with similar features to the winged fruits of the living Engelhardia Lesch. ex Blume (e.g., Palaeocarya G. Saporta) have been widely reported in Cenozoic fossil floras of the Northern Hemisphere. However, fossil winged fruits of Engelhardia with detailed anatomical structures have only been found in the upper Eocene of North America. This study reports the first Engelhardia fossil winged fruits with detailed anatomical structures in East Asia from the Miocene Erzitang Formation of Guangxi, South China. The anatomical and morphological features of the new fossils, including the unique structure of secondary septa, clearly distinguish them from other fossil genera and show unambiguously their attribution to the genus Engelhardia. This discovery suggests that Engelhardia had reached its modern distribution during the Miocene and the climate of the Guiping Basin in Guangxi during the Miocene was similar to that of present-day tropical and subtropical regions in Asia.