Subtropical Broad-leaved Forest Research Articles

Morphology and Molecular Phylogeny Reveal Five New Species of Laccaria (Hydnangiaceae, Agaricales) from Southern China.

The genus Laccaria is a type of cosmopolitan and ecologically important fungal group. Members can form ectomycorrhizal associations with numerous trees, and some species are common edible fungi in local markets. Although some new species from China are recently published, the species diversity of Laccaria is still unclear in China. In this study, some samples of Laccaria were collected from southern China, and morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses based on the multilocus dataset of ITS-LSU-tef1-rpb2 confirmed five new species. Laccaria miniata, L. nanlingensis and L. neovinaceoavellanea were collected from subtropical broad-leaved forests, and L. rufobrunnea and L. umbilicata were collected from subtropical mixed forests of southwest China. Full descriptions, illustrations, comparisons with similar species and phylogenetic analysis are provided.

Community structure and species composition of typical Quercus variabilis natural secondary forest at the northern foothills of the Qinling Mountains, China

We investigated species composition and community structure of a typical Quercus variabilis natural secondary forest in the northern foothills of the Qinling Mountains, within the dynamic monitoring plot of deciduous broad-leaved forest at the Louguantai experimental forest farm in Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi Province. The results showed that there were 3162 individual woody plants with diameter at breast height ≥1 cm in the plot, which were belonged to 42 species, 36 genera, and 25 families. The community genus's areal type was dominated by the temperate component, which accounted for 44.4%, and followed by the tropical component. The community was dominated by several tree species. The top three species with respect to importance value were Q. variabilis, Pinus tabuliformis, and Quercus aliena, with the sum of their importance value being 64.7%. The average DBH of all woody plants was 7.58 cm. The distribution of all individuals and dominant species in the tree layer was approximately normal, with more medium-size individuals. The community structure was stable. The community was poorly renewed, with a trend of population decline. Biodiversity indices varied considerably among different plots, being lower than those of subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forests. There was a significant correlation between community species distribution and environmental factors. Soil and topography explained 42.4% of the variation in community distribution. Altitude and soil alkali hydrolysable nitrogen had a significant effect on community distribution. Altitude, soil total phosphorus, and organic matter content significantly affected the species diversity of Q. variabilis communities. The stronger adaptability of Q. variabilis populations allowed them to become dominant in low-nutrient environments, which limited species diversity in the community.

Orchid Diversity in Community Managed Subtropical Forests in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, Northeast India

The present study was carried out to investigate the orchid diversity in community managed subtropical broad-leaved forests in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. A total of 87 community forests were surveyed in Khasi Hills. The study revealed the presence of 123 species belonging to 54 genera. The highest numbers of species (66) were recorded in sacred forests, followed by reserved (51) and village (32) forests. Majority of the recorded species (87) were epiphytic and 36 were terrestrial. Of all the species, 28 (22.76%) were recorded as endemic and 12 (9.76%) were rare. Dendrobium with 19 species was the dominant genera followed by Coelogyne with 11 species. Owing to a number of anthropogenic disturbances followed by habitat loss, these species are subjected to continuous threat, hence warrants immediate conservation actions. Therefore, it is suggested that mass propagation, through conventional and tissue culture techniques should be adopted to conserve the dwindling orchid diversity of the state.

Relative Humidity, Soil Phosphorus, and Stand Structure Diversity Determine Aboveground Biomass along the Elevation Gradient in Various Forest Ecosystems of Pakistan

The direct effects of relative humidity and soil on aboveground biomass (AGB) versus the indirect effects mediated by stand structural diversity remain unclear in forest ecosystems across large-scale elevation gradients. Forest inventory data containing 15,260 individual trees and 104 tree species from 200 forest plots were collected. The result shows that the relative humidity, elevation, and Coefficient of Variation of Diameter at breast height (CVD) significantly influence AGB in the Tropical Thorn Forest (TTF). Regarding elevation, CVD was positive and significant, and relative humidity and SR negatively impacted AGB in sub-tropical broad-leaved forests (STBLF). In moist temperate mixed forests (MTMF), soil phosphorus and CVD have a significant positive impact, while relative humidity, elevation, and SR negatively influence AGB. Elevation and CVD have positive, while SR and soil phosphorus have a negative and insignificant effect on AGB in Dry Temperate Conifer Forests (DTCF). Soil phosphorus and relative humidity positively affected AGB (β = 0.021), while elevation, CVD, and SR negatively affect AGB in dry temperate, pure pine forests (DTPPF). Relative humidity and soil phosphorus have a positive direct effect on AGB in multi-species forests. The current study suggests that AGB primarily depends on relative humidity, soil phosphorus, and elevation in different forest types.

Northward migration of the maximum Indian summer monsoon precipitation during the early–mid-Holocene: Evidence from sporopollen in the Andaman Sea

The Indian summer monsoon (ISM) significantly influences the evolution of the natural environment and the development of human societies in South Asia, however, the spatiotemporal nature of the maximum ISM precipitation remains uncertain. We present the first sedimentary sporopollen record from core ADM-C1 in the southern Andaman Sea, covering the past 11.2 ka to better understand the evolutionary history of the ISM. We use the percentage values of tropical–subtropical broad-leaved tree pollen to indicate regional precipitation. These pollens reached their highest abundances during ∼11–9 cal ka BP, indicating warmest and wettest climatic conditions in the southern Andaman Sea region. The subsequent retreat of the tropical–subtropical broad-leaved forest could reflect a gradual decline in ISM. By comparing numerous ISM precipitation records, we divided these records into two patterns: the timing of maximum ISM precipitation of Pattern 1 records during the early-Holocene (11–9 cal ka BP) and that of Pattern 2 records after 9 cal ka BP. The shift in the maximum ISM precipitation from Pattern 1 to Pattern 2 reflects a northward migration during the early–mid-Holocene, probably induced by the northward migration of the mean position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Furthermore, the ∼1.8 ka temporal lag between Patterns 1 and 2 could have resulted from the relatively weak Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, which might have hindered the ITCZ from migrating northward before 9 cal ka BP.

Variation characteristics of microorganisms at different soil depths of typical forests in southwest China.

Microbial biomass and community structure play a significant role in soil carbon cycling. There is a large amount of organic carbon in the subsoil, but most studies on soil microbial community have focused on the surface soil. The changes and influencing mechanisms of microbial community in subsoil are unclear. We analyzed soil microbial biomass and community structure at different soil depths (0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80, and 80-100 cm) in three typical forests in southwest China, Xishuangbanna tropical rain forest, Ailao Mountain subtropical broad-leaved forest, and Lijiang temperate coniferous forest, by using phospholipid fatty acid technology, to explore their variation characteristics and influencing factors in different forests and soil depths. The results showed that contents of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen decreased gradually, microbial biomass declined significantly. The ratio of Gram-positive bacteria to Gram-negative bacteria (G+:G-) reduced gradually, while the ratio of fungi to bacteria (F:B) increased with the increasing soil depth. Microbial community turned from G--dominated which adapted to eutrophic environment into G+-dominated which adapted to oligotrophic environment. The three forest types differed little in soil microbial biomass, but different significantly in microbial community structure. Ailao Mountain subtropical broad-leaved forest and Lijiang temperate coniferous forest had much higher F:B at 0-20 cm than Xishuangbanna tropical rain forest, while significantly higher G+:G- at 0-100 cm in Xishuangbanna tropical rain forest was observed. Results of the redundancy analysis showed that the contents of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen were the main factors determining microbial biomass, with combined explanation of 78.3%. Results of the stepwise regression analysis showed that C:N was the most important driving factor on F:B and G+:G-. The change in microbial community structure and the decrease in biomass along soil profile might strongly affect the dynamics of soil organic carbon in southwest China forests.

Carbon sequestration potential of different forest types in Pakistan and its role in regulating services for public health.

A high amount of CO2 causes numerous health effects, including headaches, restlessness, difficulty in breathing, increased heart rate, high blood pressure, asphyxia, and dizziness. This issue of increasing atmospheric CO2 can only be solved via above-ground and below-ground carbon sequestration (CS). This study was designed to determine the relationship between CS with the crown area (CA), diameter at breast height (DBH), height (H), species richness (SR), and elevation in different forest types of Pakistan with the following specific objectives: (1) to quantify the direct and indirect relationship of carbon sequestration with CA, DBH, H, and SR in various natural forest types and (2) to evaluate the effect of elevation on the trees functional traits and resultant CS. We used the linear structural equation model (SEM) for each conceptual model. Our results confirmed that the highest CS potential was recorded for dry temperate conifer forests (DTCF) i.e., 52.67%, followed by moist temperate mix forests (MTMF) and sub-tropical broad-leaved forests (STBLF). The SEM further described the carbon sequestration variation, i.e., 57, 32, 19, and 16% under the influence of CA (β = 0.90 and P-value < 0.001), H (β = 0.13 and p-value = 0.05), DBH (β = 0.07 and p-value = 0.005), and SR (β = -0.55 and p-value = 0.001), respectively. The individual direct effect of SR on carbon sequestration has been negative and significant. At the same time, the separate effect of CA, DBH, and H had a positive and significant effect on carbon sequestration. The remaining 20% of CS variations are indirectly influenced by elevation. This means that elevation affects carbon sequestration indirectly through CA, DBH, H, and SR, i.e., β = 0.133 and P-value < 0.166, followed by β = 0.531 and P-value < 0.001, β = 0.007 and P-value < 0.399, and β = -0.32 and P-value < 0.001, respectively. It is concluded that abiotic factors mainly determined carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems along with the elevation gradients in Pakistan. Quantifying the role of various forest types in carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction leads to improved air quality, which positively impacts human health. This is an imperative and novel study that links the dynamics of the biosphere and atmosphere.

A dataset of meteorological observations at Zhejiang Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observation and Research Station (2003 – 2017)

Evergreen broad-leaved forests are one of the main types of Chinese forests. The meteorological data of them are of great value for the study on the function and ecological process of evergreen broad-leaved forest ecosystem, and can serve as a major data source for weather forecast and disaster warning. Zhejiang Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observation and Research Station located in the subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forest in Tiantong Forest Park in eastern China. Since April 2003, we had collected long-term meteorological data by setting up the automatic meteorological observation system. This dataset contains the monthly data (177 entries) and annual data (15 entries) from 2013 to 2017, including 18 meteorological observation indexes, such as atmospheric temperature, atmospheric humidity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, total radiation, net radiation, reflected radiation, UV radiation, photosynthetically active radiation, sunshine hours and soil temperature in different depths (0 cm, 5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, 20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm and 100 cm). It is expected to provide data support for studying the ecological process, evaluating ecosystem service function and increasing disaster warning accuracy of local forests in Tiantong zone.

Evolution of palaeoclimate, palaeoenvironment and vegetation in Central Europe during the Miocene Climate Optimum

The Miocene Climate Optimum was an interval of global climatic warmth characterized by significant global palaeoceanographic changes. In this paper, we describe the parastratotype section of the regional Karpatian stage (late Burdigalian) at Hevlín quarry in the Czech Republic, to improve knowledge of evolving palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate during the Miocene Climate Optimum. Strontium isotope stratigraphy (87Sr/86Sr) and biostratigraphy allows precise identification of Burdigalian/Langhian boundary, and the studied section is inferred to represent the late Burdigalian time interval (17.2–16 Ma). Analysis of palynological assemblages using the Coexistence Approach and the Plant Functional Type method supported by biomarker study indicates an existence of a warm temperate to subtropical palaeoclimate pattern with a mean annual temperature range of 17–19.5 °C and a high degree of seasonality. The mean annual precipitation range was 1050–1600 mm. The zonal vegetation cover was characterized as transitional between subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forest and warm–temperate to subtropical mixed mesophytic forest. Our palaeoclimatic findings in Central Europe agree with global trends (high temperatures and a high sea level) and indicates the occurrence of rather widespread humid conditions. The proximity to our study site of the Mediterranean-Paratethys sea probably played a critical role in moderating regional palaeoclimate.

Earthworms regulate the nematode community by directly enhancing the bacterial-based energy channel rather than through the effect of casts

Earthworms and their casts act as biocatalysts and regulators of the biotic and abiotic processes in soil ecosystems. However, the relative importance of the presence of earthworms and earthworm casts in affecting other soil biota remains underexplored. In this study, we conducted a manipulative mesocosm experiment in a 30-year-old subtropical broadleaved plantation forest to determine how epi-endogeic earthworms (Amynthas corticis) and their casts affect soil nematode communities individually and additively. We found that the addition of the epi-endogeic earthworms significantly increased the proportion of the Ba1 guild nematodes and enhanced the enrichment index of the soil nematode community, but decreased the channel index. These results indicate that the soils become enriched in nutrients with a higher activity in bacterial-based decomposition pathways in the presence of earthworms. However, cast addition alone had a minor effect on soil nematodes. Results of a redundancy analysis suggest that elevated contents of soil ammonium and available phosphorous were the major influencing factors on soil nematode abundances in the presence of epi-endogeic earthworms. Our results indicate that epi-endogeic earthworms rather than through their casts contributed to the structuring of the nematode communities and enhancing of the bacterial-based energy channel. This finding contributes to our understanding of soil biodiversity maintenance mechanisms and how the relationship of the soil biota affects their functions in soil food webs.

Carbon Stock Estimation of Selected Subtropical Broad-Leaved Evergreen Scrub Forest

This research estimates the carbon stock of the subtropical broad-leaved evergreen scrub forest of Lehtrar, a revenue estate of Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan. A total of six nested co-centric plots of 17.84 m2 each were laid out in the forest, having two sub-plots of 5.64 m2 and 1 m2 each, for shrubs and litter, respectively. Stem density, tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH), total tree biomass, and total carbon stock were calculated. In each plot, parameters like latitude, longitude, aspect, slope, elevation, tree count, etc., were catalogued. The carbon value was calculated in pools such as aboveground biomass (AGB), belowground biomass (BGB), litter, shrubs, etc. The tree height was measured using Abney’s level and the diameter at breast height (DBH) with diameter tape, while factors such as volume, shrub mass, litter mass, total tree biomass, and total carbon stock were calculated by using standard formulas. Results showed Olea ferrugineae to be the most abundant tree species in the study area, followed by Acacia modesta. The total average DBH and height were calculated as 17.03 and 16.79, respectively, with the species Dalbergia sissoo having the greatest DBH value. The mean carbon stock came out to be 47.75 tons/ha, with plot number 3 having the highest value of carbon stock, owing to the greatest stem count. The results of the study were significant and reflected a rich stem density, rich biomass, and an adequate carbon stocking capacity. The scrub forests of the study area, being important carbon sinks, are prone to deforestation and forest degradation activities that need to be controlled by using proper forest management practices to keep their carbon sequestration ability intact, as suggested under various reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD initiatives of UNFCCC.

Vertical thermal environment of subtropical broad-leaved urban forests and the influence of canopy structure

Urban forests alter the surface energy balance and provide a comfortable thermal environment. However, little quantitative research exists on the relationship between their vertical temperature structure and influence on the urban thermal environment. In this study, we aimed to measure the differences and determine the correlations between the canopy temperature (T1), below-canopy air temperature (T2), below-canopy ground surface temperature (T3), and soil temperature (T4) of three forests: evergreen broad-leaved forest (EBF), deciduous broad-leaved forest (DBF), and mixed evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forest (MBF) in Zhejiang Province, China. The thermal environment of DBF fluctuated greatly, whereas that of EBF and MBF was relatively stable. T1 was highly and significantly correlated with T2 (r > 0.850, p < 0.01) and T3 (r > 0.790, p < 0.01) in EBF and MBF; thus, T1 is a good predictor of T2 and T3 in EBF and MBF. T4 was susceptible to the external thermal environment and correlated relatively well with T2 (r = 0.879) in DBF. MBF and EBF had substantial cooling effects, with mean values of T2 and T3 2.4 and 2.3 °C, and 10.1 °C and 10.7 °C lower than the air and surface temperatures in the areas without canopy shade, respectively. Ambient temperature and humidity, solar radiation, canopy thickness and density, tree number, and tree species and height significantly influenced the thermal environment and cooling effect of the forests. The results of this study provide an important reference for the future design of thermally comfortable urban landscapes.

Species Diversity, Growing Stock Variables and Carbon Mitigation Potential in the Phytocoenosis of Monotheca buxifolia Forests along Altitudinal Gradient across Pakistan

The sub-tropical broadleaved forests in Pakistan are the main constituents of the ecosystem services playing a vital role in the global carbon cycle. Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. is an important constituent of these forests, encompassing a variety of ecological and commercial uses. To our best knowledge, no quantitative studies have been conducted in these forests across the landscape to establish a baseline for future monitoring. We investigated the forest structural attributes, growing stock characteristics and total biomass carbon stock and established relationships among them in the phytocoenosis of Monotheca forests along an altitudinal gradient in Pakistan to expand an eco-systemic model for assessment of the originally-implemented conservation strategies. A floristic survey recorded 4986 individuals of 27 species in overstory and 59 species in the understory stratum. Species richness (ANOVA; F = 3.239; p = 0.045) and Simpson’s diversity (ANOVA; F = 2.802; p = 0.043) differed significantly in three altitudinal zones, with a maximum value for lower elevations, followed by middle and higher elevations. Based on the importance values, Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea are strong companions of M. buxifolia at lower and higher altitudes, whereas forests at mid elevation represent pure crop of M. buxifolia (IVI = ≥85.85%). A similar pattern in stem density, volume and Basal area were also recorded. The carbon stock in trees stratum (51.81 T ha−1) and understory vegetation (0.148 T ha−1) contributes high values in the lower elevation forests. In contrast, soil carbon had maximum values at higher elevation (36.21 T ha−1) and minimum at lower elevation (16.69 T ha−1) zones. Aboveground biomass carbon stock (AGB BMC) of woody trees, understory vegetation and soil organic carbon (SOC) were estimated higher (77.72 T ha−1) at higher and lower (68.65 T ha−1) elevations. Likewise, the AGB BMC exhibited a significant (p &lt; 0.05) negative correlation with elevation and positive correlation with soil carbon. We concluded that lower elevation forests are more diverse and floristically rich in comparison to higher altitudinal forests. Similarly, the biomass carbon of Monotheca forests were recorded maximum at low altitudes followed by high and middle ranges, respectively.

Subtropical Broad-Leaved Urban Forests as the Foremost Dynamic and Complex Habitats for a Wide Range of Bird Species

Broad-leaved subtropical forests are the most productive, diversified, and complex ecosystems on the planet. Unfortunately, they are currently under severe threat from anthropogenic activities, such as. deforestation, housing settlements, and agricultural expansion. In response to these severe effects, the present study was conducted to explore the current conservation status and population structure of a wide range of bird species inhabiting different subtropical broad-leaved urban forests of Pakistan. In total, 2879 individuals comprising 53 species and 28 families were detected between December 2017 and November 2018 as revealed through the distance sampling line transect method. The habitat selection among bird species varied according to vegetation structure and composition, food resources, adjoining habitats, and human settlements. According to IUCN Red List data, one species was deemed vulnerable out of 53 bird species, while the remaining 52 species were ranked as ofleast concern. The findings of the density analysis revealed that bird density varied between six subtropical broad-leaved forests. Palamar (3.954 ± 0.221 birds/ha) and Kityari (3.138 ± 0.162 birds/ha) were densely populated, whereas Kamal Khan (1.102 ± 0.178 birds/ha) was of the least concern. Likewise, the diversity analysis showed that Kamal Khan was a more diverse habitat (Shannon–Wiener Index; H’ = 3.581 ± 0.021). Shahabad was richer (Margalef Richness Index; R1 = 8.007 ± 0.053) and Dob Ghar was evenly distributed (Pielou J Evenness Index; E = 0.940 ± 0.005) compared to other urban habitats studied. Eight foraging guilds were identified among the bird species. Insectivores were the most abundant bird species utilizing the urban dwelling habitats. carnivores/piscivores/insectivores utilized Dob Ghar forest, while more frugivores utilized Kamal Khan and Dob Ghar. Based on the data, it was concluded that subtropical broad-leaved urban forests are dynamic, complex, and of vital significance for a diverse range of bird species.

Sedimentary Environmental Evolution of the Western Taiwan Shoal Area since the Late Pleistocene

A new pollen analysis and major and trace element contents were conducted on a 40 m long gravity core recovered from the Taiwan Shoal (sand ridges), south of the Taiwan Strait, beginning in the Late Pleistocene. The changes in the pollen assemblage and concentration represent the climate change around the Taiwan Shoal and the strength of the Zhe-Min Coastal Current, whereas variations in major and trace element contents can imply the source of the sediments in the Taiwan Shoal, which are correlated with the rise or fall of the sea level with increased marine dinoflagellate cysts. The interval of 40–30 m was characterized by high pollen and spore concentrations, and evergreen Quercus was dominant taxon, which indicates a warm sedimentary environment, and the surrounding area of the Taiwan Shoal were covered by a tropical and subtropical broad-leaved forest. There were no pollen and spores from 30–24 m, which indicates a strong hydrodynamic sedimentary environment, and most of the Taiwan Shoal might have been experience subaerial exposure. The interval of 24–17 m was characterized by the reappearance of pollen and spores, as well as marine dinoflagellate cysts and foraminifera, suggesting the climate was warm and wet in the study area and an apparent marine sedimentary environment with relatively high sea level. Deciduous Quercus dominated the interval of 17–12 m, which indicated that the climate was relatively cool, corresponding to the end of Marine isotope stages3 (MIS3) to the Last Glacial Maximum accompanied by weathering and denudation. Above 12 m, the low pollen concentration with increased marine dinoflagellate cysts and foraminifera abundance suggested a marine sedimentary environment in the Taiwan Shoal. The high concentrations in Pinus corresponds to Holocene high sea level.

Influence of Scale Effect of Canopy Projection on Understory Microclimate in Three Subtropical Urban Broad-Leaved Forests

The canopy is the direct receiver and receptor of external environmental variations, and affects the microclimate and energy exchange between the understory and external environment. After autumn leaf fall, the canopy structure of different forests shows remarkable variation, causes changes in the microclimate and is essential for understory vegetation growth. Moreover, the microclimate is influenced by the scale effect of the canopy. However, the difference in influence between different forests remains unclear on a small scale. In this study, we aimed to analyze the influence of the scale effect of canopy projection on understory microclimate in three subtropical broad-leaved forests. Three urban forests: evergreen broad-leaved forest (EBF), deciduous broad-leaved forest (DBF), and mixed evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forest (MBF) were selected for this study. Sensors for environmental monitoring were used to capture the microclimate data (temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), and light intensity (LI)) for each forest. Terrestrial laser scanning was employed to obtain the canopy projection intensity (CPI) at each sensor location. The results indicate that the influence range of canopy projection on the microclimate was different from stand to stand (5.5, 5, and 3 m). Moreover, there was a strong negative correlation between T and RH, and the time for T and LI to reach a significant correlation in different urban forests was different, as well as the time for RH and LI during the day. Finally, the correlation between CPI and the microclimate showed that canopy projection had the greatest effect on T and RH in MBF, followed by DBF and EBF. In conclusion, our findings confirm that canopy projection can significantly affect understory microclimate. This study provides a reference for the conservation of environmentally sensitive organisms for urban forest management.

Restoration in degraded subtropical broadleaved forests induces changes in soil bacterial communities

Soil resident bacterial communities are involved in myriad key processes that facilitate ecosystem functionality. However, our understanding of their diversity and compositional dynamics following ecological restoration, and the main factors that influence them, remains inadequate. We employed a chronosequence (0–1, 5–6, 11–12, 20–24, and 28–34 years since restoration) to examine the dynamic changes in soil bacterial diversity and composition, as well as the essential factors that affected them since the cessation of anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., recurring fuelwood collection and domestic animal grazing), and used old-growth forests as a reference in the subtropical forests of Eastern China. We found that soil bacterial diversity increased with time since restoration, and community compositions shifted toward being similar to those of old-growth forests over time. However, the recovery process was prolonged since the significant difference in soil bacterial diversity between degraded and restored forests did not occur until after 24 years since restoration. Multivariate analysis using multiple-response permutation procedures indicated the soil bacterial communities were compositionally distinct between degraded, restored, and old-growth forests. An analysis of indicator species revealed that forests at the early stage of recovery times supported Rokubacteria and Actinobacteria, while old-growth forests were distinguished by Chlamydiae. Soil carbon, microbial biomass carbon, soil water content, and microbial biomass nitrogen recovered over time and became increasingly akin to those of old-growth forest soils. Soil carbon, soil water content, and soil pH could explain 84.5% of the variations in bacterial community dynamics following restoration. Overall, this study revealed a prolonged recovery process of the community structures of soil bacteria (e.g., diversity, composition, and phylum abundance) following restoration, which was coupled with changes in soil properties in subtropical forests of China.

Vertical differentiation of soil organic carbon in mature natural forests in China.

We analyzed the effects of meteorological factors and soil properties on vertical variation of SOC, based on soil organic carbon (SOC) density in different soil layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, and 50-100 cm) from 131 mature natural forests in different climate zones in China. The results showed that SOC density decreased with increasing soil depth (0-30 cm) in temperate coniferous, temperate deciduous broadleaved, subtropical deciduous broadleaved and subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests. There were significant regional variations of SOC density in 0-100 cm soil layer. SOC density of 0-100 cm soil layer in temperate coniferous forests was higher than temperate deciduous broadleaved forests, and was higher in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests than subtropical deciduous broadleaved forests. SOC density was significantly positively correlated with soil clay content, mean annual precipitation, and aboveground net primary production, and significantly negatively correlated with soil pH and mean annual temperature. Mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature influenced input and output of SOC, while soil pH and clay content affected SOC accumulation. Therefore, protecting mature natural coniferous and evergreen broadleaved forests would benefit forest carbon sequestration in China.

Two new Laccaria species from China based on molecular and morphological evidence

Laccaria fagacicola and L. pallidorosea, two new species collected from subtropical broad-leaved forests, were described in this study with both molecular and morphological evidence. Laccaria fagacicola is characterized by its brownish orange basidioma and globose to subglobose, echinulate basidiospores with spines 1–2 μm long and 1–1.5 μm wide at base. Laccaria pallidorosea has a small and pinkish basidioma, and globose to subglobose, echinate basidiospores with spines 1.5–2 μm long and 2 μm wide at base. Phylogenetic analyses based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region indicated that L. fagacicola is sister to L. rubroalba and L. aurantia, while L. pallidorosea is related to L. versiforma and L. salmonicolor. These two new species are described, illustrated, and compared with closely related and morphologically similar species.

Edaphic variables are better indicators of soil microbial functional structure than plant-related ones in subtropical broad-leaved forests

Soil microorganisms play important roles in the ecosystem functioning of subtropical broad-leaved forests (SBFs). However, the patterns and environmental indicators of soil microbial functional structure remain unclear in SBFs. In the present work, we used a functional microarray (GeoChip 4.0) to examine the soil microbial functional structure of three types of SBFs, including a deciduous broad-leaved forest (DBF), a mixed evergreen-deciduous broad-leaved forest (MBF), and an evergreen broad-leaved forest (EBF). We found that microbial functional structure was significantly different among SBFs (P < 0.05). Compared to the DBF and the EBF, the MBF had higher functional α-diversity (P = 0.001, F = 12.55) but lower β-diversity (P < 0.001, F = 61.09), and showed more complex functional gene networks. Besides, the MBF had higher relative abundances of functional genes for carbon (C) decomposition, C fixation, nitrogen (N) cycling, sulfur (S) cycling, and phosphorus (P) cycling (P < 0.05), indicating stronger microbial functional capabilities of nutrient cycling processes. Edaphic variables (i.e., soil pH and soil nutrient content) were revealed as better indicators of soil microbial functional structure than plant-related ones (i.e., vegetation type and plant diversity) in SBFs. For example, functional gene structure of the DBF was significantly related to soil total S (P = 0.041), that of the MBF was significantly related to soil organic C (P = 0.027) and plant available P (P = 0.034), and that of the EBF was significantly related to soil pH (P = 0.006) and total potassium (K) (P = 0.038). Overall, through the analysis of microbial functional gene profiles, this study yields unique insights into the environmental indicators of patterns and mechanisms of soil microbial functional structure in SBFs.