Substantial Clues Research Articles

Risk assessment framework for pine wilt disease: Estimating the introduction pathways and multispecies interactions among the pine wood nematode, its insect vectors, and hosts in China

Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by the pine wood nematode (PWN, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus), a destructive, invasive forest pathogen, poses a serious threat to global pine forest ecosystems. The global invasion of PWN has been described based on three successive phases, introduction, establishment, and dispersal. Risk assessments of the three successive PWN invasion phases can assist in targeted management efforts. Here, we present a risk assessment framework to evaluate the introduction, establishment, and dispersal risks of PWD in China using network analysis, species distribution models, and niche concepts. We found that >88 % of PWN inspection records were from the United States, South Korea, Japan, Germany, and Mexico, and 94 % of interception records were primarily from the Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Tianjin, and Zhejiang ports. Based on the nearly current climate, the areas of PWN overlap with its host Pinus species were primarily distributed in southern, eastern, Yangtze River Basin, central, and northeastern China regions. Areas of PWN overlap with its insect vector Monochamus alternatus were primarily distributed in southern, eastern, Yangtze River Basin, central, and northeastern China regions, and those of PWN overlap with the insect vector Monochamus saltuarius were primarily distributed in eastern and northeastern China. The niche between PWN and the insect vector M. alternatus was the most similar (0.68), followed by that between PWN and the insect vector M. saltuarius (0.47). Climate change will increase the suitable probabilities of PWN and its two insect vectors occurring at high latitudes, further increasing their threat to hosts in northeastern China. This risk assessment framework for PWD could be influential in preventing the entry of the PWN and mitigating their establishment and dispersal risks in China. Our study provides substantial clues for developing a framework to improve the risk assessment and surveillance of biological invasions worldwide.

Generic and robust root cause localization for multi-dimensional data in online service systems

Localizing root causes for multi-dimensional data is critical to ensure online service systems’ reliability. When a fault occurs, only the measure values within specific attribute combinations (e.g., Province = Beijing) are abnormal. Such attribute combinations are substantial clues to the underlying root causes and thus are called root causes of multi-dimensional data. This paper proposes a generic and robust root cause localization approach for multi-dimensional data, PSqueeze. We propose a generic property of root cause for multi-dimensional data, generalized ripple effect (GRE). Based on it, we propose a novel probabilistic cluster method and a robust heuristic search method. Moreover, we identify the importance of determining external root causes and propose an effective method for the first time in literature. Our experiments on two real-world datasets with 5400 faults show that the F1-score of PSqueeze outperforms baselines by 32.89%, while the localization time is around 10 s across all cases. The F1-score in determining external root causes of PSqueeze achieves 0.90. Furthermore, case studies in several production systems demonstrate that PSqueeze is helpful to fault diagnosis in the real world.

Intentionality and the Diversity of Religion: A Prelude

The grounds of religious diversity and pluralism have mainly been sought out from without, i.e., from outside the human mind. A striking example is Hick’s idea of the one ultimate reality, which is posited to embrace all the semi-ultimate realities appearing in individual religions. However, the present inquiry adopts a different strategy for coping with the above-mentioned issue. Specifically, in this inquiry, I attempt to find a substantial clue to religious diversity and pluralism from within, i.e., from the intentionality of the mind. This idea, as a descriptive and explanatory hypothesis, consists of the following theses: (I) As suggested by the Husserlian phenomenology interpreted by Sokolowski, there are at least two forms of directedness of the mind: filled and empty intentionalities. (II) In connection with them, two distinct types of religious spirituality emerge: the intentionality of transcendental filling (ITF) and that of transcendental emptying (ITE). (III) The diversity of religion that gives rise to pluralism is, at least in part, due to the different ways in which those two forms of religious minds are combined. With these considerations, we reach a new philosophical foundation of the issue in question, and also obtain a possible theoretical basis for securing an adequate method of religious—and particularly interreligious—studies.

3D structure of the Campi Flegrei caldera central sector reconstructed through short-period magnetotelluric imaging

The Campi Flegrei caldera experienced an unrest phase dating to 2005, which primary expression is the impressive ground uplift, accompanied by increasing degassing and seismic activities. Such last two phenomena developed mainly in the caldera central sector, including the Solfatara–Pisciarelli complex. However, the inner structure of such an area is still not defined, and this originates a poor understanding of the ongoing unrest. This paper describes the results of a new magnetotelluric survey performed in the Campi Flegrei caldera central sector. Through the inversion of data collected in 47 independent soundings, a 3D model of the electrical resistivity has been retrieved, which evidenced a partition of the investigated structure. The Agnano–Astroni area seems to be associated with a liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir, whereas the Solfatara–Pisciarelli area seems to be characterized by a single mixed liquid and gasses-dominated geothermal reservoir, which supplies the main caldera fumaroles. The proposed reconstruction of the geometrical characteristics of the hydrothermal system and the primary fluid rising pathways gives substantial clues about the significance of the detected structures in the evolution of the caldera unrest.

Quaternary post-collisional high Nb-like basalts from Bijar-Qorveh, NW Iran: A metasomatized lithospheric mantle source

The Quaternary Bijar-Qorveh mafic volcanic rocks (BQMVR) occur in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (SSZ) of Iran, a segment of the Alpine-Himalayan Orogeny with a Gondwana-affinity basement. Phases 1 and 2 of BQMVR are silica-undersaturated (basanite, tephrite, and phonotephrite) and form a highly alkaline or HA suite. The last phase, phase 3, of BQMVR is silica-saturated (alkali olivine basalt and hawaiite) and is called the mildly alkaline or MA suite. BQMVR share well-known subduction-related negative Nb Ta anomalies, and their Nb abundances are high enough to be classified as ‘high-Nb like basalts’. However, they do not show geochemical characteristics of typical high-Nb basalts. Trace element abundances and patterns of the MA suite mimic garnet-bearing spinel peridotite partial melts, whereas the HA suite is too rich in incompatible trace elements to match normal mantle partial melts. Enriched trace element patterns of the HA suite are akin to hornblendite experimental partial melts, and are likely derived from a garnet-amphibole peridotite source. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic characteristics of the BQMVR indicate a subcontinental lithospheric mantle affinity. The HA suite tends toward the EM1 array, whereas the MA suite follows the EM2 array. The highly radiogenic Sr Nd isotopes of the MA suite indicate significant crustal contamination. Lithospheric delamination beneath the SSZ that followed Arabia-Eurasia collision, triggered garnet-amphibole peridotite partial melting that interacted with 10–30% of the asthenospheric component to have formed the HA suite. Mantle melting at shallower lithosphere depths followed and produced the MA suite. MELTS modeling shows the BQMVR underwent fractional crystallization of clinopyroxene ± olivine. Whole-rock thermobarometric calculations suggest derivation of the primary melts at a depth of ~97 km, however the Cpx-thermobarometer indicates that such melts equilibrated at lower crust depths at a depth of 45 km close to the Moho. The present Quaternary volcanostratigraphic study provides substantial clues for major post-collisional alkaline high-Nb mafic volcanism bearing signatures of two distinct magmatic stages; an early phase (phases 1 and 2) rooted in a deeper garnet amphibole peridotite followed by phase 3 rooted in a garnet-poor spinel peridotite. • Quaternary alkaline mafic volcanism in western Iran is post collisional. • Highly alkaline (HA) suite is derived from juvenile amphibole rich mantle. • Mildly alkaline (MA) suite is derived from shallower, ancient lithospheric mantle. • EM1 and EM2 affinities of the HA and MA suites respectively comply with the SCLM. • MELTS and isotopes revealed FC and AFC roles for HA and MA suites respectively.

Bioinformatics analysis deciphering the transcriptomic signatures associated with signalling pathways and prognosis in the myelodysplastic syndromes

ABSTRACT Background: Several studies scatteredly identified the myelodysplastic syndromes’ transcriptomic profiles (MDS). However, the exploration of transcriptional signatures, key signalling pathways, and their association with prognosis and diagnosis in the integrated multiple datasets remains lacking. Methods: We integrated the GSE4619, GSE19429, GSE30195, and GSE58831 microarray datasets of CD34 + cells for identifying the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the MDS. The series of bioinformatics methods are applied to identify the key hub genes, gene clusters, prognostic hub genes, and genes associated with diagnostic efficacy. Finally, we validated the expression differences of hub genes in the GSE114922 dataset. Results: We explored the DEGs related to gene ontology enrichment and KEGG pathways. We identified significant hub genes, including 168 upregulated hub genes (such as STAT1, IFIH1, EPRS, GRB2, RAC2, MAPK14, CASP1, and SPI1) and 52 downregulated hub genes (such as CREBBP, HIF1A, PIK3CA, EZH2, PIK3R1, MDM2, IRF4, CXCR4, PCNA, and CD19) in the MDS. In addition, we identified six significant molecular complex detection (MCODE)-derived upregulated gene clusters and one downregulated gene cluster, respectively. Moreover, we found that the higher expression level of MX2, GBP2, PXN, IFI44, FDXR, PLCB2, ASS1, ERCC4, PML, and RRAGD and the lower expression level of CD19, PAX5, TCF3, LEF1, NUSAP1, and TIMELESS hub genes are significantly correlated with shorter survival times of MDS patients. Furthermore, the area value under the ROC curve (AUC) of PXN, FDXR, PLCB2, PML, CD19, PAX5, and LEF1 prognostic genes are more than 0.80, indicating that these genes could be effectively used for the diagnostic efficacy of MDS patients. Conclusions: Identifying key hub genes and their association with the prognosis and diagnostic efficacy may provide substantial clues for the treatment and diagnosis of MDS patients.

Electron Density-Change in Semiconductor by Ion-Adsorption at Solid-Liquid Interface.

The change in electrical properties of electrodes by adsorption or desorption at interfaces is a well-known phenomenon required for signal production in electrically transduced sensing technologies. Furthermore, in terms of electrolyte-insulator-semiconductor (EIS) structure, several studies of energy conversion techniques focused on ion-adsorption at the solid-liquid interface have suggested that the electric signal is generated by ionovoltaic phenomena. However, finding substantial clues for the ion-adsorption phenomena in the EIS structure is still a difficult task because direct evidence for carrier accumulation in semiconductors by Coulomb interactions is insufficient. Here, a sophisticated Hall measurement system is demonstrated to quantitatively analyze accumulated electron density-change inside the semiconductor depending on the ion-adsorption at the solid-liquid interface. Also, an enhanced EIS-structured device is designed in an aqueous-soaked system that works with the ionovoltaic principle to monitor the ion-dynamics in liquid electrolyte media, interestingly confirming ion-concentration dependence and ion-specificity by generated peak voltages. This newly introduced peculiar method contributes to an in-depth understanding of the ionovoltaic phenomena in terms of carrier actions in the semiconductors and ionic behaviors in the aqueous-bulk phases, providing informative analysis about interfacial adsorptions that can expand the scope of ion-sensing platforms.

Über den Hintergrund der Verbreitung des Kybele-Kultes im Westen der Mittelmeerwelt

Abstract A broad literary tradition accounts for the transfer of Magna Mater (in the shape of a meteorite) from Pessinus to Rome in 205 BCE. The evidence includes many details regarding the mythical aetiology and institutional organization of the cult. However, our main source, Livy 29.10.4-29.11.8 & 29.14.5-14, is viewed with ever growing suspicion, partly due to contradictions with other witnesses, partly because the scarce archaeological material from Pessinus that predates the 2nd century BC does not support the claim of a Phrygian cult centre. Latest research demonstrates that Livy does not, in fact, require a glorious Phrygian past of the site, but rather provides substantial clues pointing to the agency of Attalos I of Pergamon, as does Strabo (12.5.3). This king was not simply a mediator between Rome and Pessinus, but appears to have played a most active role in diverting the Roman quest to inland Anatolia and in shaping the cult of Kybele and Attis both in the valley of the Gallos and on the banks of the Tiber.

Colorimetric Dye-Loaded Nanofiber Yarn: Eye-Readable and Weavable Gas Sensing Platform.

The colorimetric gas sensor offers an opportunity for the simple and rapid detection of toxic gaseous substances based on visually discernible changes in the color of the sensing material. In particular, the accurate detection of trace amounts of certain biomarkers in a patient's breath provides substantial clues regarding specific diseases, for example, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) for halitosis and ammonia (NH3) for kidney disorder. However, conventional colorimetric sensors often lack the sensitivity, selectivity, detection limit, and mass-productivity, impeding their commercialization. Herein, we report an inexpensive route for the meter-scale synthesis of a colorimetric sensor based on a composite nanofiber yarn that is chemically functionalized with an ionic liquid as an effective H2S adsorbent and lead acetate as a colorimetric dye. As an eye-readable and weavable sensing platform, the single-strand yarn exhibits enhanced sensitivity supported by its high surface area and well-developed porosity to detect the breath biomarker (1 ppm of H2S). Alternatively, the yarn loaded with lead iodide dyes could reversibly detect NH3 gas molecules in the ppm-level, demonstrating the facile extensibility. Finally, we demonstrated that the freestanding yarns could be sewn into patterned textiles for the fabrication of a wearable toxic gas alarm system with a visual output.

Perpetrator Plays the Victim: The Politics of Representation in the Captivity Narratives of the Whites

This paper draws upon and brings into focus an interesting part of the colonial corpus- the captivity narratives. The discoverers of the New World who then shortly turned invaders had to face resistance from the Natives as they embarked upon their conquest, usurpation and assumption of Property in the virgin lands of the continent lying unexploited till the White man set foot on it. To rightfully and legally take that did not belong to the White intruders they had to be morally, culturally and even ethically superior. This question of ‘Might is Right’ is resolved easy through legal systems and machinery on one hand and narratives and discourse and institutions on the other. The Captive Narratives were put to work operating to dub and dismiss the Native. The captive narratives though taken together as a body worked as a device to denigrate the Natives and typecast them so that their extermination would be found as relieving rather than horrendous; as a step towards safety rather than a brutal incursion, they also offered rare insights when not written as part of a strategy but as biographical accounts of Whites held captive by the Reds. Especially, accounts that do not fall neatly onto the timeline set by the White diverge from popular, touted, dominant accounts that underscore barbaric customs of the Reds. These rare narratives by White people brought up by Natives cast a different light on the Red culture and offer substantial clues that the Red way of life was preferable.

Ethanolic extract of Allacanthos crab inhibits cancer cell proliferation, posses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potentials

Cancer remains a disease with high mortality rate both in humans and animals. The etiopathogenesis of cancer is complex. Inflammation and oxidative stress are the main factors in carcinogenesis. The body uses antioxidant defensive mechanisms to oppose oxidative stress. Many oxidants scavenging compounds found in the body are of dietary origin. The anti-proliferative effects of ethanolic extract of Allacanthos crab (EEAC) were investigated on human hepatic (HepG2) and Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 luminal (MCF7) cancer cell lines using MTT assay, EEAC was more effective in HepG2 with IC50 values of (198.03 μg/mL & 152.62 μg/mL) than MCF7 breast cancer cell line with IC50 values of (436.15 μg/mL & 401.95 μg/mL) for 24 and 48 h treatment respectively. The EEAC was also very effective in anti-inflammation and antioxidant activities with IC50 values of 3.20 mg/mL & 22.29 μg/mL respectively. These important biological activities showed that Allacanthos crab could be a potential source of curing and preventing cancer with active molecules intended for applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Further study in this regard may provide more substantial clues to enhance the compounds isolation and their effectiveness in various metabolic anomalies.

Reimagining Historical Improvisation

Reimagining historical improvisation is a speculative pursuit: like any other aspect of historical performance practice, historical improvisations by living musicians create modern sounds (Taruskin 1995). However, historical notations, treatises, and accounts of performances provide substantial clues for reconstructing historical practices of improvisation (Gjerdingen 2007a; Levin 2009; Sanguinetti 2012; Guido 2017). Gjerdingen (2007a) highlights the role of phrase schemata in eighteenth-century music learning and creativity in composition, improvisation, or anywhere in between. Levin’s live improvisation in the style of Mozart at Cambridge University on October 29, 2012, captured on YouTube, serves as an analytical case study for the significance of conventional schemata in the musicianship of a living, elite-expert historical improviser. I reflect on Levin’s manipulations of schemata, allusions to the original pieces requested by the audience, as well as on interconnections between the various parts of his fantasy. Music analysis thus becomes here a reflection on improvisatory technique. The analysis also outlines the challenging listening horizons for audience members with significant experience in the style. Finally, our age of digital reproduction allows us to turn this ephemeral act of musical communication into an object for speculation, creating analytical “suggestions” for readers (Temperley 1999) or a listening guide for a historically-informed fantasy.

MYSM1-AR complex-mediated repression of Akt/c-Raf/GSK-3β signaling impedes castration-resistant prostate cancer growth.

Epigenetic alterations that lead to dysregulated gene expression in the progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remain elusive. Here, we investigated the role of histone deubiquitinase MYSM1 in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (PCa). Tissues and public datasets of PCa were evaluated for MYSM1 levels. We explored the effects of MYSM1 on cell proliferation, senescence and viability both in vitro and in vivo. Integrative database analyses and co-immunoprecipitation assays were performed to elucidate genomic association of MYSM1 and MYSM1-involved biological interaction network in PCa. We observed that MYSM1 were downregulated in CRPC compared to localized prostate tumors. Knockdown of MYSM1 promoted cell proliferation and suppressed senescence of CRPC cells under condition of androgen ablation. MYSM1 downregulation enhanced the tumorigenic ability in nude mice. Integrative bioinformatic analyses of the significantly associated genes with MYSM1 revealed MYSM1-correlated pathways, providing substantial clues as to the role of MYSM1 in PCa. MYSM1 was able to bind to androgen receptor instead of increasing its expression and knockdown of MYSM1 resulted in activation of Akt/c-Raf/GSK-3β signaling. Together, our findings indicate that MYSM1 is pivotal in CRPC pathogenesis and may be established as a potential target for future treatment.

A Bayesian approach for estimating protein-protein interactions by integrating structural and non-structural biological data.

Accurate elucidation of genome wide protein-protein interactions is crucial for understanding the regulatory processes of the cell. High-throughput techniques, such as the yeast-2-hybrid (Y2H) assay, co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP), mass spectrometric (MS) protein complex identification, affinity purification (AP) etc., are generally relied upon to determine protein interactions. Unfortunately, each type of method is inherently subject to different types of noise and results in false positive interactions. On the other hand, precise understanding of proteins, especially knowledge of their functional associations is necessary for understanding how complex molecular machines function. To solve this problem, computational techniques are generally relied upon to precisely predict protein interactions. In this work, we present a novel method that combines structural and non-structural biological data to precisely predict protein interactions. The conceptual novelty of our approach lies in identifying and precisely associating biological information that provides substantial interaction clues. Our model combines structural and non-structural information using Bayesian statistics to calculate the likelihood of each interaction. The proposed model is tested on Saccharomyces cerevisiae's interactions extracted from the DIP and IntAct databases and provides substantial improvements in terms of accuracy, precision, recall and F1 score, as compared with the most widely used related state-of-the-art techniques.

Subcellular Localization of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato Effector Proteins in Plants.

Animal and plant pathogenic bacteria use type III secretion systems to translocate proteinaceous effectors to subvert innate immunity of their host organisms. Type III secretion/effector systems are a crucial pathogenicity factor in many bacterial pathogens of plants and animals. Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) DC3000 injects a total of 36 protein effectors that target a variety of host proteins. Studies of a subset of Pst DC3000 effectors demonstrated that bacterial effectors, once inside the host cell, are localized to different subcellular compartments, including plasma membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplast, and Trans-Golgi network, to carry out their virulence functions. Identifying the subcellular localization of bacterial effector proteins in host cells could provide substantial clues to understanding the molecular and cellular basis of the virulence activities of effector proteins. In this chapter, we present methods for transient or stable expression of bacterial effector proteins in tobacco and/or Arabidopsis thaliana for live cell imaging as well as confirming the subcellular localization in plants using fluorescent organelle markers or chemical treatment.

Identification of European woodpecker species in audio recordings from their drumming rolls

Drumming sounds are substantial clues when searching audio recordings for the presence of woodpeckers. Woodpeckers use drumming for territory defence and mate attraction to such an extent that some species have no vocalisations for these functions. This implies that drumming bears species markers. This hypothesis stands at the root of our project to develop an autonomous program for the identification of drumming species. To proceed, we assembled a database of 361 recordings from open-access bird sound archives. The recordings were for nine drumming species found on the European continent. Focusing on the signal below 1500Hz, we reviewed all audio files and extracted 2665 drumming rolls. For recordings where multiple birds were present, the drumming rolls were attributed to individual birds. This allowed keeping track of the time interval between successive rolls. The characteristic traits of drumming are decidedly temporal. Consequently, the spectral features that have been successful in other recent bird identification studies were not applicable in our case. We developed specialized drumming parameters and automated their calculation. We then performed a t-SNE dimensionality reduction to visualise the dataset and to demonstrate that our parameters detached the different classes properly. Eventually, a k-NN algorithm accurately labelled 87.2% of the submitted test samples. The time structure within the drumming rolls (speed, acceleration) provided the critical features. The duration of the rolls followed in importance. The results compare well to existing literature and attest to the feasibility of monitoring European woodpecker species by tracking drumming.

Direct reconstruction of dynamical dark energy from observational Hubble parameter data

Reconstructing the evolution history of the dark energy equation of state parameter $w(z)$ directly from observational data is highly valuable in cosmology, since it contains substantial clues in understanding the nature of the accelerated expansion of the Universe. Many works have focused on reconstructing $w(z)$ using Type Ia supernova data, however, only a few studies pay attention to Hubble parameter data. In the present work, we explore the merit of Hubble parameter data and make an attempt to reconstruct $w(z)$ from them through the principle component analysis approach. We find that current Hubble parameter data perform well in reconstructing $w(z)$; though, when compared to supernova data, the data are scant and their quality is worse. Both $\Lambda$CDM and evolving $w(z)$ models can be constrained within $10\%$ at redshifts $z \lesssim 1.5$ and even $5\%$ at redshifts 0.1 $\lesssim$ z $\lesssim$ 1 by using simulated $H(z)$ data of observational quality.

A Mirror for Recluses: A New Manuscript, New Information and Some New Hypotheses

This note alerts the scholarly community to a newly-discovered manuscript of A Mirror for Recluses, a fifteenth-century English translation of the Latin rule for recluses, Speculum Inclusorum. The new manuscript includes substantial amounts of text that are missing from the only other extant copy, and it begins with a previously unknown translator's prologue. The latter (here transcribed in full) provides a date for the translation, and some substantial clues to provenance.

Assessment of genetic and epigenetic variation during long-term Taxus cell culture

Gradual loss of secondary metabolite production is a common obstacle in the development of a large-scale plant cell production system. In this study, cell morphology, paclitaxel (Taxol®) biosynthetic ability, and genetic and epigenetic variations in the long-term culture of Taxus media cv Hicksii cells were assessed over a 5-year period to evaluate the mechanisms of the loss of secondary metabolites biosynthesis capacity in Taxus cell. The results revealed that morphological variations, gradual loss of paclitaxel yield and decreased transcriptional level of paclitaxel biosynthesis key genes occurred during long-term subculture. Genetic and epigenetic variations in these cultures were also studied at different times during culture using amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP), methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses. A total of 32 primer combinations were used in AFLP amplification, and none of the AFLP loci were found to be polymorphic, thus no major genetic rearrangements were detected in any of the tested samples. However, results from both MSAP and HPLC indicated that there was a higher level of DNA methylation in the low-paclitaxel yielding cell line after long-term culture. Based on these results, we proposed that accumulation of paclitaxel in Taxus cell cultures might be regulated by DNA methylation. To our knowledge, this is the first report of increased methylation with the prolongation of culture time in Taxus cell culture. It provides substantial clues for exploring the gradual loss of the taxol biosynthesis capacity of Taxus cell lines during long-term subculture. DNA methylation maybe involved in the regulation of paclitaxel biosynthesis in Taxus cell culture.

Quantitative relation between the thermionic contrast of metal surfaces and their degree of monocrystallization

For better understanding the peculiarities of work function, a simple model is devised to calculate the effective work functions (ϕ+ and ϕe) for positive-ionic and electronic emissions from polycrystalline surfaces, which have a work function range from the maximum (ϕmax) to the minimum (ϕmin). Analysis of the theoretical results thus obtained and also of experimental data published to date enables us to find the quantitative relation between the thermionic contrast (Δϕ*≡ϕ+−ϕe) and the degree of monocrystallization (δm), thereby yielding the three formulae of (1) Δϕ*=c for 0<δm≲1/2 (polycrystal), (2) Δϕ*=4 cδm (1−δm) for l/2≲δm≲1 (polycrystal), and (3) Δϕ*=0 for δm=1 (monocrystal). For a given surface consisting of a number of patchy faces (i), δm corresponds to the largest among its fractional surface areas (Fi) having different values of local work function (ϕi). In a typical case of tungsten, the constant of c is evaluated theoretically to be 0.53±0.09eV, which well agrees with 0.59±0.06eV determined experimentally by many workers and also which satisfies the essential condition of Δϕ*≦c<ϕmax−ϕmin≈0.8–1.0eV. Our theoretical model is quite simple, but it is very useful for (1) evaluating both ϕ+ and ϕe with an uncertainty of less than ±0.1eV, (2) finding the quantitative relation between Δϕ* and δm for actual surfaces of both poly- and monocrystals, and also (3) getting a substantial clue as to the problem how the effective work functions are governed by the surface characteristics of both Fi and ϕi.