Subsequent Time Trial Performance Research Articles

Effects of Five Serial Apnoeas Prior to a Running Time Trial in Competitive Athletes

AbstractPurposeThis study aimed to determine whether a series of repeated maximal voluntary apnoeas is effective in improving subsequent time trial performance in competitive level track and field athletes.MethodsSeventeen competitive runners volunteered for this study and based on their preferred competitive distance they were placed either in the 200 m (5 male, 4 female) or 1000 m group (3 male, 5 female). On two separate occasions (≤ 7 days apart), the participants performed a running time-trial that was preceded either by: (i) a standardised warm up (WO) or (ii) a standardised warm up succeeded by five repeated maximal dry static apnoeas (WA). Splenic volume, haematology and cardiovascular parameters were monitor at rest, before and after each time-trial.ResultsWA resulted in a significantly faster performance (27.51 ± 3.49 s;P = 0.009) compared with WO (27.96 ± 3.34 s) in the 200 m group, whereas no differences were observed in the 1000 m group (WA, 211.10 ± 26.18 s; WO, 215.82 ± 25.13 s,P = 0.120). No differences were noted in splenic volume between WO and WA in either group (P ≥ 0.081). Haemoglobin was significantly elevated after breath-holding in the 200 m (+ 7 g/dL,P = 0.041) but not 1000 m group.ConclusionThis study demonstrates that five repeated maximal apnoeas are capable of significantly improving a 200 m but not a 1000 m time-trial performance in competitive track and field athletes.

Intrasession Caffeine Intake and Cycling Performance After Accumulated Work: A Field-Based Study.

Preexercise caffeine intake has proven to exert ergogenic effects on cycling performance. However, whether these benefits are also observed under fatigue conditions remains largely unexplored. We aimed to assess the effect of caffeine ingested during prolonged cycling on subsequent time-trial performance in trained cyclists. The study followed a triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over design. Eleven well-trained junior cyclists (17 ± 1years) performed a field-based 8-min time trial under "fresh" conditions (i.e.,after their usual warm-up) or after two work-matched steady-state cycling sessions (total energy expenditure∼20kJ/kg and ∼100min duration). During the latter sessions, participants consumed caffeine (3mg/kg) or a placebo ∼60min before the time trial. We assessed power output, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion during the time trial and mood state (Brunel Mood Scale) before and after each session. No significant condition effect was found for the mean power output attained during the time trial (365 ± 25, 369 ± 31, and 364 32W for "fresh," caffeine, and placebo condition, respectively; p = .669). Similar results were found for the mean heart rate (p = .100) and rating of perceived exertion (p = 1.000) during the time trial and for the different mood domains (all p > .1). Caffeine intake during prolonged exercise seems to exert no ergogenic effects on subsequent time-trial performance in junior cyclists. Future studies should determine whether significant effects can be found with larger caffeine doses or after greater fatigue levels.

Impact of Post-Exercise Fructose-Maltodextrin Ingestion on Subsequent Endurance Performance.

Background: Current sports nutrition guidelines recommend athletes ingest carbohydrates at 1.0–1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 to optimize repletion of muscle glycogen during short-term recovery from endurance exercise. However, they do not provide specific advice on monosaccharides (e.g., fructose or glucose) other than to ingest carbohydrates of moderate to high glycaemic index. Recent evidence suggests that combined ingestion of fructose and glucose in recovery leads to enhanced liver glycogen synthesis and that this translates into improvement of subsequent endurance capacity.Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether consuming a combination of fructose and glucose as opposed to glucose alone during short-term recovery (i.e., 4 h) from exhaustive exercise would also improve subsequent pre-loaded cycle time trial (TT) performance.Methods: Eight participants (seven men, one woman; O2peak: 56.8 ± 5.0 mLO2·min−1·kg−1; Wmax: 352 ± 41 W) participated in this randomized double-blind study. Each experimental session involved a glycogen reducing exercise bout in the morning, a 4-h recovery period and 1-h of steady state (SS) exercise at 50% Wmax followed by a ~40-min simulated TT. During recovery carbohydrates were ingested at a rate of 1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 in the form of fructose and maltodextrin (FRU + MD) or dextrose and maltodextrin (GLU + MD) (both in 1:1.5 ratio). Substrate oxidation rates, including ingested carbohydrate oxidation, were determined during the steady state (SS). Blood samples were collected during recovery, during the SS exercise and at the end of the TT for determination of glucose and lactate concentrations.Results: There were no differences in TT performance [37.41 ± 3.45 (GLU + MD); 37.96 ± 5.20 min (FRU + MD), p = 0.547]. During the first 45-min of SS oxidation of ingested carbohydrates was greater in FRU + MD (1.86 ± 0.41 g−1·min−1 and 1.51 ± 0.37 g−1·min−1 for FRU + MD and GLU + MD, respectively; time x condition interaction p = 0.003) and there was a trend toward higher overall carbohydrate oxidation rates in FRU + MD (2.50 ± 0.36 g−1·min−1 and 2.31 ± 0.37 g−1·min−1 for FRU + MD and GLU + MD, respectively; p = 0.08). However, at 60-min of SS, differences in substrate oxidation disappeared.Conclusion: Ingestion of combined fructose and glucose compared to glucose only during recovery from an exhaustive exercise bout increased the ingested carbohydrate oxidation rate during subsequent exercise. Under the conditions studied, subsequent TT performance was not improved with fructose-glucose.

Probiotic supplementation increases carbohydrate metabolism in trained male cyclists: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial.

We hypothesized that probiotic supplementation (PRO) increases the absorption and oxidation of orally ingested maltodextrin during 2 h endurance cycling, thereby sparing muscle glycogen for a subsequent time trial (simulating a road race). Measurements were made of lipid and carbohydrate oxidation, plasma metabolites and insulin, gastrointestinal (GI) permeability, and subjective symptoms of discomfort. Seven male cyclists were randomized to PRO (bacterial composition given in methods) or placebo for 4 wk, separated by a 14-day washout period. After each period, cyclists consumed a 10% maltodextrin solution (initial 8 mL/kg bolus and 2 mL/kg every 15 min) while exercising for 2 h at 55% maximal aerobic power output, followed by a 100-kJ time trial. PRO resulted in small increases in peak oxidation rates of the ingested maltodextrin (0.84 ± 0.10 vs. 0.77 ± 0.09 g/min; P = 0.016) and mean total carbohydrate oxidation (2.20 ± 0.25 vs. 1.87 ± 0.39 g/min; P = 0.038), whereas fat oxidation was reduced (0.40 ± 0.11 vs. 0.55 ± 0.10 g/min; P = 0.021). During PRO, small but significant increases were seen in glucose absorption, plasma glucose, and insulin concentration and decreases in nonesterified fatty acid and glycerol. Differences between markers of GI damage and permeability and time-trial performance were not significant (P > 0.05). In contrast to the hypothesis, PRO led to minimal increases in absorption and oxidation of the ingested maltodextrin and small reductions in fat oxidation, whereas having no effect on subsequent time-trial performance.

Sports Compression Garments Enhance Recovery Hemodynamics and Subsequent Time-Trial Performance

Sports Compression Garments Enhance Recovery Hemodynamics and Subsequent Time-Trial Performance

Beetroot juice ingestion during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise attenuates progressive rise in O2 uptake.

Nitrate-rich beetroot juice (BR) supplementation has been shown to increase biomarkers of nitric oxide availability with implications for the physiological responses to exercise. We hypothesized that BR supplementation before and during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise would maintain an elevated plasma nitrite concentration ([[Formula: see text]]), attenuate the expected progressive increase in V̇o2 over time, and improve performance in a subsequent time trial (TT). In a double-blind, randomized, crossover design, 12 men completed 2 h of moderate-intensity cycle exercise followed by a 100-kJ TT in three conditions: 1) BR before and 1 h into exercise (BR + BR); 2) BR before and placebo (PL) 1 h into exercise (BR + PL); and 3) PL before and 1 h into exercise (PL + PL). During the 2-h moderate-intensity exercise bout, plasma [[Formula: see text]] declined by ~17% in BR + PL but increased by ~8% in BR + BR such that, at 2 h, plasma [[Formula: see text]] was greater in BR + BR than both BR + PL and PL + PL ( P < 0.05). V̇o2 was not different among conditions over the first 90 min of exercise but was lower at 120 min in BR + BR (1.73 ± 0.24 l/min) compared with BR + PL (1.80 ± 0.21 l/min; P = 0.08) and PL + PL (1.83 ± 0.27 l/min; P < 0.01). The decline in muscle glycogen concentration over the 2-h exercise bout was attenuated in BR + BR (~28% decline) compared with BR + PL (~44% decline) and PL + PL (~44% decline; n = 9, P < 0.05). TT performance was not different among conditions ( P > 0.05). BR supplementation before and during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise attenuated the progressive rise in V̇o2 over time and appeared to reduce muscle glycogen depletion but did not enhance subsequent TT performance. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show for the first time that ingestion of nitrate during exercise preserves elevated plasma [nitrite] and negates the progressive rise in O2 uptake during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise.

Coconut Water Does Not Improve Markers of Hydration During Sub-maximal Exercise and Performance in a Subsequent Time Trial Compared with Water Alone

The purpose of this study was to compare markers of hydration during submaximal exercise and subsequent time trial performance when consuming water (PW) or coconut water (CW). There was also a secondary aim to assess the palatability of CW during exercise and voluntary intake during intense exercise. 10 males (age 27.9 ± 4.9 years, body mass 78.1 ± 10.1kg, average max minute power 300.2 ± 28.2W) completed 60-min of submaximal cycling followed by a 10-km time trial on two occasions. During these trials participants consumed either PW or CW in a randomized manner, drinking a 250 ml of the assigned drink between 10-15 min, 25-30 min and 40-45 min, and then drinking ad libitum from 55-min until the end of the time trial. Body mass and urine osmolality were recorded preexercise and then after 30-min, 60-min, and post time trial. Blood glucose, lactate, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion (RPE; 6-20) and ratings of thirst, sweetness, nausea, fullness and stomach upset (1 =very low/none, 5= very high) were recorded during each drink period. CW did not significantly improve time trial performance compared with PW (971.4 ± 50.5 and 966.6 ± 44.8 s respectively; p = .698) and there was also no significant differences between trials for any of the physiological variables measured. However there were subjective differences between the beverages for taste, resulting in a significantly reduced volume of voluntary intake in the CW trial (115 ± 95.41 ml and 208.7 ± 86.22 ml; p < .001).

Substrate Utilization and Cycling Performance Following Palatinose™ Ingestion: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial.

(1) Objective: To compare the effects of isomaltulose (Palatinose™, PSE) vs. maltodextrin (MDX) ingestion on substrate utilization during endurance exercise and subsequent time trial performance; (2) Methods: 20 male athletes performed two experimental trials with ingestion of either 75 g PSE or MDX 45 min before the start of exercise. The exercise protocol consisted of 90 min cycling (60% VO2max) followed by a time trial; (3) Results: Time trial finishing time (−2.7%, 90% CI: ±3.0%, 89% likely beneficial; p = 0.147) and power output during the final 5 min (+4.6%, 90% CI: ±4.0%, 93% likely beneficial; p = 0.053) were improved with PSE compared with MDX. The blood glucose profile differed between trials (p = 0.013) with PSE resulting in lower glycemia during rest (95%–99% likelihood) and higher blood glucose concentrations during exercise (63%–86% likelihood). In comparison to MDX, fat oxidation was higher (88%–99% likelihood; p = 0.005) and carbohydrate oxidation was lower following PSE intake (85%–96% likelihood; p = 0.002). (4) Conclusion: PSE maintained a more stable blood glucose profile and higher fat oxidation during exercise which resulted in improved cycling performance compared with MDX. These results could be explained by the slower availability and the low-glycemic properties of Palatinose™ allowing a greater reliance on fat oxidation and sparing of glycogen during the initial endurance exercise.

The effect of dehydration on muscle metabolism and time trial performance during prolonged cycling in males.

This study combined overnight fluid restriction with lack of fluid intake during prolonged cycling to determine the effects of dehydration on substrate oxidation, skeletal muscle metabolism, heat shock protein 72 (Hsp72) response, and time trial (TT) performance. Nine males cycled at ∼65% VO2peak for 90 min followed by a TT (6 kJ/kg BM) either with fluid (HYD) or without fluid (DEH). Blood samples were taken every 20 min and muscle biopsies were taken at 0, 45, and 90 min of exercise and after the TT. DEH subjects started the trial with a −0.6% BM from overnight fluid restriction and were dehydrated by 1.4% after 45 min, 2.3% after 90 min of exercise, and 3.1% BM after the TT. There were no significant differences in oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide production, or total sweat loss between the trials. However, physiological parameters (heart rate [HR], rate of perceived exertion, core temperature [Tc], plasma osmolality [Posm], plasma volume [Pvol] loss, and Hsp72), and carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation and muscle glycogen use were greater during 90 min of moderate cycling when subjects progressed from 0.6% to 2.3% dehydration. TT performance was 13% slower when subjects began 2.3% and ended 3.1% dehydrated. Throughout the TT, Tc, Posm, blood and muscle lactate [La], and serum Hsp72 were higher, even while working at a lower power output (PO). The accelerated muscle glycogen use during 90 min of moderate intensity exercise with DEH did not affect subsequent TT performance, rather augmented Tc, RPE and the additional physiological factors were more important in slowing performance when dehydrated.

Astaxanthin Supplementation Does Not Augment Fat Use or Improve Endurance Performance

Astaxanthin is a lipid-soluble carotenoid found in a variety of aquatic organisms. Prolonged astaxanthin supplementation has been reported to increase fat oxidative capacity and improve running time to exhaustion in mice. These data suggest that astaxanthin may be applied as a potent ergogenic aid in humans. To assess the effect of 4 wk of astaxanthin supplementation on substrate use and subsequent time trial performance in well-trained cyclists. Using a double-blind parallel design, 32 young, well-trained male cyclists or triathletes (age = 25 ± 1 yr, weight = 73 ± 1 kg, V˙O2peak = 60 ± 1 mL·kg·min, Wmax = 395 ± 7 W; mean ± SEM) were supplemented for 4 wk with 20 mg of astaxanthin per day (ASTA) or a placebo (PLA). Before and after the supplementation period, subjects performed 60 min of exercise (50% Wmax), followed by an time trial of approximately 1 h. Daily astaxanthin supplementation significantly increased basal plasma astaxanthin concentrations from nondetectable values to 187 ± 19 μg·kg (P < 0.05). This elevation was not reflected in greater total plasma antioxidant capacity (P = 0.90) or attenuated malondialdehyde levels (P = 0.63). Whole-body fat oxidation rates during submaximal exercise did not differ between groups and did not change over time (from 0.71 ± 0.04 to 0.68 ± 0.03 g·min and from 0.66 ± 0.04 to 0.61 ± 0.05 g·min in the PLA and ASTA groups, respectively; P = 0.73). No improvements in time trial performance were observed in either group (from 236 ± 9 to 239 ± 7 and from 238 ± 6 to 244 ± 6 W in the PLA and ASTA groups, respectively; P = 0.63). Prolonged astaxanthin supplementation does not augment antioxidant capacity, increase fat oxidative capacity, or improve time trial performance in trained cyclists.

No Improvement in Endurance Performance after a Single Dose of Beetroot Juice

Dietary nitrate supplementation has received much attention in the literature due to its proposed ergogenic properties. Recently, the ingestion of a single bolus of nitrate-rich beetroot juice (500 ml, ~6.2 mmol NO3-) was reported to improve subsequent time-trial performance. However, this large volume of ingested beetroot juice does not represent a realistic dietary strategy for athletes to follow in a practical, performance-based setting. Therefore, we investigated the impact of ingesting a single bolus of concentrated nitrate-rich beetroot juice (140 ml, ~8.7 mmol NO3-) on subsequent 1-hr time-trial performance in well-trained cyclists. Using a double-blind, repeated-measures crossover design (1-wk washout period), 20 trained male cyclists (26 ± 1 yr, VO(2peak) 60 ± 1 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1), Wmax 398 ± 7.7 W) ingested 140 ml of concentrated beetroot juice (8.7 mmol NO3-; BEET) or a placebo (nitrate-depleted beetroot juice; PLAC) with breakfast 2.5 hr before an ~1-hr cycling time trial (1,073 ± 21 kJ). Resting blood samples were collected every 30 min after BEET or PLAC ingestion and immediately after the time trial. Plasma nitrite concentration was higher in BEET than PLAC before the onset of the time trial (532 ± 32 vs. 271 ± 13 nM, respectively; p < .001), but subsequent time-trial performance (65.5 ± 1.1 vs. 65 ± 1.1 s), power output (275 ± 7 vs. 278 ± 7 W), and heart rate (170 ± 2 vs. 170 ± 2 beats/min) did not differ between BEET and PLAC treatments (all p > .05). Ingestion of a single bolus of concentrated (140 ml) beetroot juice (8.7 mmol NO3-) does not improve subsequent 1-hr time-trial performance in well-trained cyclists.

Effects of Chocolate Milk Supplementation on Recovery from Cycling Exercise and Subsequent Time Trial Performance

Effects of Chocolate Milk Supplementation on Recovery from Cycling Exercise and Subsequent Time Trial Performance

Carbohydrate and carbohydrate + protein for cycling time-trial performance

Carbohydrate intake during endurance exercise delays the onset of fatigue and improves performance. Two recent cycling studies have reported increased time to exhaustion when protein is ingested together with carbohydrate. The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that ingestion of a carbohydrate + protein beverage will lead to significant improvements in cycling time-trial performance relative to placebo and carbohydrate alone. Thirteen cyclists completed 120 min of constant-load ergometer cycling. Thereafter, participants performed a time-trial in which they completed a set amount of work (7 kJ · kg−1) as quickly as possible. Participants completed four experimental trials, the first for familiarization and then three randomized, double-blind treatments consisting of a placebo, carbohydrate, and carbohydrate + protein. Participants received 250 ml of beverage every 15 min during the constant-load ride. Time-trial performance for carbohydrate (37.1 min, s = 3.8) was significantly (P < 0.05) faster than placebo (39.7 min, s = 4.6). Time-trial performance for carbohydrate + protein (38.8 min, s = 5.5) was not significantly different from either placebo or carbohydrate. Ingestion of a carbohydrate beverage during two hours of constant-load cycling significantly enhanced subsequent time-trial performance compared with placebo. The carbohydrate + protein beverage provided no additional performance benefit.

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF PRE-EXERCISE CARBOHYDRATE FEEDING ON METABOLISM AND CYCLING PERFORMANCE

Studies on the effect of pre-exercise carbohydrate ingestion on metabolism and performance have produced conflicting results and this may be because of differences in the study designs. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of different amounts of pre-exercise glucose feeding on glucose and insulin responses during cycling exercise and on time trial performance. METHODS: Nine trained male cyclists (VO2max: 64.1 ± 2.1 mlkg−1min−1) completed 4 exercise trials in random order. Forty-five min before the start of exercise subjects consumed 500 ml of a beverage containing either 0 g (PLAC), 25 g (LOW), 75 g (MED) or 200 g (HIGH) of glucose. The exercise trials consisted of 20 min of submaximal steady state exercise (SS) at 65% of maximal power output (72 ± 1%VO2max) immediately followed by a 691 ± 12 kJ time trial (TT). RESULTS: Plasma insulin concentrations at the onset of SS exercise were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in MED and HIGH compared with LOW and PLAC. Plasma glucose fell rapidly (P < 0.05) during SS exercise in all glucose trials, while plasma glucose remained stable in PLAC. No difference in plasma glucose concentration was observed between the glucose trials at any of the time points. Hypoglycemia (< 3.5 mmolL−1) was observed in 5 subjects during SS after pre-exercise glucose feeding, while none of the subjects developed hypoglycemia after PLAC. However, there was no difference in TT performance between the four trials. CONCLUSION: The ingestion of 0, 25, 75 or 200 g of glucose 45 min before a 20-min submaximal exercise bout did not affect subsequent TT performance. In addition, mild rebound hypoglycemia following pre-exercise glucose ingestion did not negatively affect TT performance.

Effects of carbohydrate ingestion before and during exercise on glucose kinetics and performance

We investigated the effect of carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion before and during exercise and in combination on glucose kinetics, metabolism and performance in seven trained men, who cycled for 120 min (SS) at approximately 63% of peak power output, followed by a 7 kJ/kg body wt time trial (TT). On four separate occasions, subjects received either a placebo beverage before and during SS (PP); placebo 30 min before and 2 g/kg body wt of CHO in a 6.4% CHO solution throughout SS (PC); 2 g/kg body wt of CHO in a 25.7% CHO beverage 30 min before and placebo throughout SS (CP); or 2 g/kg body wt of CHO in a 25.7% CHO beverage 30 min before and 2 g/kg of CHO in a 6.4% CHO solution throughout SS (CC). Ingestion of CC and CP markedly (>8 mM) increased plasma glucose concentration ([glucose]) compared with PP and PC (5 mM). However, plasma [glucose] fell rapidly at the onset of SS so that after 80 min it was similar (6 mM) between all treatments. After this time, plasma [glucose] declined in both PP and CP (P < 0.05) but was well maintained in both CC and PC. Ingestion of CC and CP increased rates of glucose appearance (R(a)) and disappearance (R(d)) compared with PP and PC at the onset of, and early during, SS (P < 0.05). However, late in SS, both glucose R(a) and R(d) were higher in CC and PC compared with other trials (P < 0.05). Although calculated rates of glucose oxidation were different when comparing the four trials (P < 0.05), total CHO oxidation and total fat oxidation were similar. Despite this, TT was improved in CC and PC compared with PP (P < 0.05). We conclude that 1) preexercise ingestion of CHO improves performance only when CHO ingestion is maintained throughout exercise, and 2) ingestion of CHO during 120 min of cycling improves subsequent TT performance.