Subsequent Physical Performance Research Articles

Effects of an Auditory Versus Visual Stimulus on Reaction and Response Time During Countermovement Jumps.

Reacting and responding to an external stimulus is an important component of human performance, and they inform us about a participant's neurophysiological capabilities. Our purpose in this study was to determine whether reaction times (REACT), response times (RT), and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance differ when responding to an auditory (AUD) versus visual (VIS) stimulus. Participants were 17 college-aged volunteers (6 females and 11 males; M age = 23.0, SD = 3.4 years; M height = 174.57, SD = 10.37cm; M body mass = 73.37, SD = 13.48kg). Participants performed CMJs on force plates immediately upon receiving an AUD or a VIS stimulus. The AUD stimulus was a beep noise, while the VIS stimulus was a light on a screen in front of the participants. We determined REACT for the tibialis anterior (TA), medial gastrocnemius (GM), vastus lateralis (VL), and biceps femoris (BF) muscles to be the amount of time between stimulus onset and the initiation of the muscle's electromyographic (EMG) signal. We determined RT to be the amount of time between stimulus onset and the beginning of the participant's force production. We assessed CMJ performance via ground reaction forces during the unweighting, braking, and propulsive phases of the jump. We quantified EMG amplitude and frequency during each CMJ phase. We found RT to be faster to the AUD versus the VIS stimulus (p = .007). VL and BF muscles had faster REACT than TA and GM muscles (p ≤ .007). The AUD stimulus was associated with faster CMJ unweighting phase metrics (p ≤ .005). Thus, individuals may react and respond faster to an AUD versus VIS stimulus, with limited improvements in their subsequent physical performance.

The Use of Acute Exercise Interventions as Priming Strategies to Improve Physical Performance During Track-and-Field Competitions: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT The use of exercise interventions to maximize athletes' performance is a common practice in competitions. This systematic review aimed to compile research that explored the effectiveness of priming strategies to maximize physical performance in track and field. The literature search was conducted from PubMed and Scopus. One hundred eighty-two studies were assessed against the inclusion criteria: (a) minimum 1-year participation/competition experience; (b) randomized controlled trials with pre-post intervention outcomes; and (c) studies involving exercise interventions applied ≤6 hours before outcome measures were collected. Fifteen studies satisfied the criteria and were categorized according to the exercise interventions used (i.e., resistance training, plyometric/ballistic training, resisted sprints, and modified warm-ups). Heavy-loaded resistance training (i.e., >85% 1 repetition maximum) and resisted sprints increased subsequent sprint performance. Plyometrics/ballistic training also positively impacted subsequent jumping (i.e., long jump) and throwing performance (i.e., shot put). Modified warm-ups (i.e., high-intensity sprints and heavier throwing implements) also improved subsequent running and throwing performance. Overall, exercise interventions performed at high intensity and low volume augment subsequent physical performance as close to 4 minutes before the event. However, a sufficient recovery interval must be considered for a positive performance response.

The effects of nicotine withdrawal on exercise-related physical ability and sports performance in nicotine addicts: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Previous research has established that nicotine withdrawal can ameliorate cardiovascular and pulmonary function in smokers. Nevertheless, the impact on physical fitness and athletic performance remains under-investigated. To evaluating the impacts of nicotine withdrawal on both exercise performance and exercise-associated physical capabilities in nicotine-dependent individuals. A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. The data was compiled from databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Central, and EBSCO. The selection criteria required studies to elucidate the effects of nicotine withdrawal on exercise performance or exercise-related physical abilities. Moreover, the selected studies needed to provide discernible experimental results. The random effects model was employed in data analysis, utilizing the standardized mean difference (SMD) and the 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) to estimate participants' exercise performance and physical abilities, referencing the Mean ±SD during baseline and withdrawal states. Out of the selected studies, 10 trials were included, encompassing 13,538 participants aged 18 to 65 years. The findings suggest that nicotine withdrawal could potentially enhance sports performance (SMD = 0.45, 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.88; I^2 = 83%), particularly in terms of aerobic capacity. Short-term nicotine withdrawal (spanning 12 to 24 hours) might lead to a decline in participants' physical abilities in certain aspects like reaction time and sustained attention (SMD = -0.83, 95% CI: -1.91 to 0.25; I^2 = 79%), whereas long-term withdrawal (lasting 48 hours or more) demonstrated an opposing trend (SMD = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.12 to 0.39; I^2 = 81%). Overall, the results show that long-term nicotine withdrawal exhibited some positive impacts on sports performance and exercise-related physical ability, with the withdrawal duration being an indicator of subsequent physical performance. Mid- to long-term (≥3 months) nicotine withdrawal significantly improved the exercisers' exercise-related physical ability and sports performance. Conversely, short-term (≤24 hours) nicotine withdrawal considerably hampered exercisers' performance and physical cognition. It is suggested that exercises avoid abrupt nicotine cessation prior to competitions, as long-term nicotine withdrawal has been shown to significantly enhance exercise-related physiological capacities and athletic performance. By referring to existing literatures we also found that athletes with existing nicotine addiction may could consume nicotine 15-30 minutes before competition to enhance athletic performance and physical function.PROSPERO registration number CRD42023411381.

Effects of Stroop task duration on subsequent cognitive and physical performance

The strength model of self-control purports to explain why brief cognitive response inhibition tasks impair subsequent isometric handgrip endurance. According to the model, ego depleting tasks requiring self-control resources impair performance on subsequent tasks that also require self-control resources. However, several lines of evidence challenge this model, including evidence of improved exercise performance following longer cognitive tasks. Our study investigated the effects of cognitive task duration on (1) subsequent physical endurance performance, (2) concurrent cognitive task performance, and (3) subsequent novel cognitive task performance. Adopting an experimental design, with Stroop task type (incongruent, congruent) and duration (5, 10, 20 min) as between-participant factors, participants (N = 180) completed a color word Stroop task, an isometric handgrip to exhaustion task, and a novel 5-min incongruent number word Stroop task. In the handgrip task, endurance performance was worse following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop for 10-min tasks but not 5-min and 20-min tasks. In the word Stroop task, accuracy was lower and speed was slower following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. Importantly, reaction times improved with longer task durations. In the novel number Stroop task, accuracy was higher following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. In conclusion, the finding that the ego depletion effect was moderated by cognitive task duration is better explained by the expected value of control model than the strength model.

Using Deadlifts as a Postactivation Performance Enhancement Strategy in Warm-ups in Football.

Abade, E, Brito, J, Gonçalves, B, Saura, L, Coutinho, D, and Sampaio, J. Using deadlifts as a postactivation performance enhancement strategy in warm-ups in football. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1821-1827, 2023-Postactivation performance enhancement activities may be relevant warm-up strategies aiming to improve subsequent physical performance. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of adding barbell deadlift or hex-bar deadlift exercises to current warm-up routines on running and jumping performances in football players. Ten highly trained male football players participated in the study during the competitive phase of the season. All players performed 3 protocols in the same week: a standard warm-up that included players' regular routines and 2 other protocols with the addition of barbell or hex-bar deadlift, after the end of the warm-up (3 sets of 3 reps, progressing set by set from 60% to 85% repetition maximum). All protocols had the same time interval between pretest (immediately after the warm-up) and posttest (15 minutes after the warm-up). Vertical jumping (countermovement jump [CMJ]; Abalakov jump [AJ]) and running performances (505 test) were impaired 15 minutes after the standard warm-up (CMJ: -6.7 ± 4.2%; AJ: -8.1 ± 8.4%; and 505 time: 1.4 ± 2.5%). For warm-up with the addition of barbell deadlift, vertical jump increased by 4.3 ± 5.6% (Cohen's dunb : 0.23 [0.02-0.47]) and 505 time decreased by -5.9 ± 3.6% (Cohen's dunb : 0.97 [-1.68 to -0.43]). The warm-up with hex-bar deadlift led to trivial changes for CMJ and AJ, but 505 time decrease by -2.7 ± 2.6% (Cohen's dunb : -0.53 [-1.01 to -0.13]). The deadlift exercise can be added to warm-up routines to maintain or even enhance acute physical performance. However, coaches and practitioners should be aware that performance enhancements resultant from deadlift may vary according to individual physical profiles.

Mental Fatigue Effects on the Produced Perception of Effort and Its Impact on Subsequent Physical Performances.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between mental fatigue induced by a demanding cognitive task and impaired physical performance in endurance due to a higher perception of effort. A total of 12 healthy adults and volunteers, who had previously practiced endurance activities for 4 to 8 h per week, performed a one-hour cognitive task involving either the process of response inhibition (Stroop task) or not (visualization of a documentary as control task), then 20 min of pedaling on a cycle ergometer at a constant perception of effort while cardio-respiratory and neuromuscular functions were measured. The Stroop task induces subjective feelings of mental fatigue (vigor: 3.92 ± 2.61; subjective workload: 58.61 ± 14.57) compared to the control task (vigor: 5.67 ± 3.26; p = 0.04; subjective workload: 32.5 ± 10.1; p = 0.005). This fatigue did not act on the produced perceived effort, self-imposed, and did not affect the cardio-respiratory or neuromuscular functions during the subsequent physical task whose type was medium-term endurance. Regardless of the mental condition, the intensity of physical effort is better controlled when the participants in physical activity control their perception of effort. Mental fatigue does not affect subsequent physical performance but estimated perceived exertion, which increases with the intensity and duration of the exercise.

Entry Fitness And Subsequent Physical Performance Change In Recruits Across British Army Basic Training Courses.

Soldiers require high levels of fitness to perform physically demanding role-related tasks, such as load carriage and moving equipment. Developing cardiorespiratory endurance and muscular strength through progressive physical training programmes during Basic Training (BT) will support soldiers to perform their duties and reduce musculoskeletal injury risk. PURPOSE: To (1) quantify physical performance changes in recruits undertaking three British Army BT courses; Standard Entry (SE), Junior Entry Short (JE-Short) and Long (JE-Long) and (2) explore differences between courses, men and women, and entry fitness level. METHODS: Performance of 2 km run, medicine ball throw (MBT) and mid-thigh pull (MTP) were assessed at entry and completion of BT (14 [SE]), 23 [JE-Short] or 49 [JE-Long] weeks in duration) for 2350 (272 women) British Army recruits. Performance change was analysed with entry performance as a covariate (ANCOVA), before an additional interaction term allowing different slopes for course and gender. RESULTS: There was high heterogeneity, although BT courses saw average improvements in surrogate tests for cardiovascular endurance (2 km run: SE: -6.8% [-0.62 min], JE-Short: -4.6% [-0.43 min], JE-Long: -7.7% [-0.70 min]; all p < 0.001) and muscular strength and power (MBT: 1.0-8.8% [0.04-0.34 m]; all p < 0.05; MTP: 4.5-26.9% [6.5-28.8 kg]; all p < 0.001). Regression models indicated a form of regression to the mean whereby performance change was negatively associated with entry fitness (those with low baseline fitness exhibit larger improvements), particularly for women. However, when matched for entry fitness, men displayed considerable improvements in all tests, relative to women. CONCLUSIONS: British Army BT courses were effective in developing physical fitness and entry fitness was negatively associated with change over time. Other factors not measured including age and physical maturity could also be contributors to the training response. Individualising physical training may enhance physical fitness development and role-related job-task performance. Funded by the UK Ministry of Defence (Army).

Boredom, motivation, and perceptions of pain: Mechanisms to explain the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance

ObjectivesPrior self-control exertion has been shown to have a detrimental effect on subsequent physical performance. However, some potential underpinning mechanisms of the effect have yet to be examined. The present study explored whether exerting self-control reduces subsequent physical performance; and also examines the role of boredom, motivation, perceptions of pain, and sustained attention as mechanisms to explain these performance effects. MethodsIn a within-subjects order-balanced crossover design, 63 participants completed a self-control exertion task (incongruent Stroop) and non-self-control exertion task (congruent Stroop) for 4 min. Immediately after, participants completed a wall-sit task until volitional exhaustion. Task-specific boredom was measured following the Stroop task and following the wall-sit task. Participants’ perceptions of pain and motivation were measured every 30 s during the wall sit task. Upon completion of the wall-sit, participants completed a test of sustained attention. ResultsFollowing the self-control exertion task, participant’s wall-sit performance time was reduced (136 ± 62 s), compared to when they completed the non-self-control exertion task (144 ± 57 s, p = 0.05, d = 0.14). Participant’s task related boredom was significantly higher during the non-self-control exertion task (4.30 ± 1.23), compared to the self-control exertion task (3.82 ± 1.22) (p < 0.001, d = 0.39); but boredom was not different during the wall-sit task (p = 0.79). Prior self-control exertion also led to increased overall perceptions of pain (p = 0.02) and reduced overall (p = 0.01) and initial (p = 0.02) motivation during the wall-sit task. However, no differences in initial perceptions of pain (p = 0.16) or sustained attention (response time, p = 0.99; response accuracy, p = 0.78) were observed. Additional within-subjects mediation analysis revealed that differences in wall-sit performance time could not be explained by differences in task related boredom during the Stroop task, overall perceptions of pain, or overall and initial motivation (all p > 0.05). ConclusionsThe prior exertion of self-control resulted in a decrement in subsequent physical performance. Furthermore, individuals’ perceptions of task related boredom were higher during the non-self-control exertion (congruent Stroop) task, whilst overall perceptions of pain were higher, and initial and overall motivation were lower, following the self-control exertion (incongruent Stroop) task. However, mediation analysis revealed that these mechanisms did not explain the difference in wall sit performance time between the conditions.

Physical performance in women ́s football preseason. Body composition, heart rate and biomarkers, are they important? Rendimiento físico durante la pretemporada en fútbol femenino. Composición corporal, frecuencia cardíaca y biomarcadores, ¿son importantes?

A well-designed football pre-season is crucial for the subsequent physical performance of the players. This study aimed to analyse, in this period, the effects of body composition, heart rate variability and physiological biomar- kers on female football players’ physical performance. To this end, 22 amateur female football players (23.68 ± 3.69 years) of the same team participated in the study. Physical performance factors (acceleration capacity and jumping ability), body composition, perceived exertion load, heart rate variability and some physiological biomarkers (salivary testosterone and cortisol) were evaluated weekly during a 5-week pre-season period (from T0 to T5). Wilks’ Lambda indicated a significant F-value in all variables except the high and low heart frequency ratio (LFtoHF). Scheffe’s post-hoc identified differences between T0 and all weeks in anthropometry variables, and between T0 and T5 in all other variables. According to the regression analyses, it was revealed a negati- ve impact between percentage of body fat and physical capacities, particularly with 20-m (-13.77) and 40-m (-14.46) when the exertion is measured by the logarithm of the root mean square of successive R-R interval differences (RMSSD). Therefore, the present research suggests that amateur female football players who start the training season with a lower body fat percentage are able to achieve a better fitness level in a short period of time.

A Video-Based Tactical Task Does Not Elicit Mental Fatigue and Does Not Impair Soccer Performance in a Subsequent Small-Sided Game.

Mental fatigue can impair physical, technical, and tactical performance in sports. Since most previous research used general cognitive tasks to elicit mental fatigue, the aim of this study was to investigate whether a more sport-specific task could induce the effects of mental fatigue and impair the subsequent physical and technical performance in a soccer small-sided game. Ten soccer players performed two small-sided games on two different days in a crossover design. Before each small-sided game, they performed a video-based tactical task (30 min) and a control task (documentary watching, 30 min) in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Mental effort was measured through a visual analog scale after the tactical and control tasks. Subjective ratings of perceived exertion were assessed through the RPE questionnaire after the end of the SSG. Physical performance was assessed during the SSG through GPS technology. Results showed no differences (p > 0.05) in physical performance between the two conditions. None of the technical variables were negatively affected by the video-based tactical condition, with the number of total passes (p = 0.003; ES = 0.72 medium) and successful passes (p = 0.003; ES = 0.82 large) results even improved by the video-based tactical task. The mental effort required by the video-tactical task was significantly higher than the control task (p = 0.002; ES = 2.09 huge). However, overall RPE did not differ between conditions. The video-based tactical task did not elicit mental fatigue and did not impair subsequent physical and technical performance. The higher ecological validity of the task and the higher motivation of the participants might have contributed to the results.

The mechanisms underpinning the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance: a meta-analysis

ABSTRACT Prior self-control exertion is consistently reported to cause decrements in subsequent physical performance. However, research into the explanatory mechanisms underpinning the effect is limited and has not been assessed under a meta-analytical lens. Therefore, the present study reports a meta-analysis examining the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance, as well as the mechanisms underpinning the effect. A systematic search of relevant databases was conducted to identify studies that utilized the sequential task paradigm, involving self-control manipulations lasting 30 minutes or less, and examined an aspect of physical performance. Random effects meta-analysis demonstrated that the prior exertion of self-control resulted in a statistically significant medium sized negative effect of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance (g = −0.55). Further analysis revealed a small increase in initial perceptions of pain (g = 0.18) and a medium sized reduction in self-efficacy (g = −0.48), while motivation and RPE were unaffected following the exertion of self-control. The present study provides a novel insight into the mechanisms underpinning the effects of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance. Initial perceptions of pain and self-efficacy appear important mechanisms and thus could be targeted in future interventions aimed at attenuating the effects of self-control exertion to enhance subsequent physical performance.

Immediate effects of photobiomodulation therapy combined with a static magnetic field on the subsequent performance: a preliminary randomized crossover triple-blinded placebo-controlled trial.

There is evidence about the effects of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) alone and combined with a static magnetic field (PBMT-sMF) on skeletal muscle fatigue, physical performance and post-exercise recovery in different types of exercise protocols and sports activity. However, the effects of PBMT-sMF to improve the subsequent performance after a first set of exercises are unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of PBMT-sMF, applied between two sets of exercises, on the subsequent physical performance. A randomized, crossover, triple-blinded (assessors, therapist, and volunteers), placebo-controlled trial was carried out. Healthy non-athlete male volunteers were randomized and treated with a single application of PBMT-sMF and placebo between two sets of an exercise protocol performed on isokinetic dynamometer. The order of interventions was randomized. The primary outcome was fatigue index and the secondary outcomes were total work, peak work, and blood lactate levels. Twelve volunteers were randomized and analyzed to each sequence. PBMT-sMF decreased the fatigue index compared to the placebo PBMT-sMF at second set of the exercise protocol (MD = -6.08, 95% CI -10.49 to -1.68). In addition, PBMT-sMF decreased the blood lactate levels post-intervention, and after the second set of the exercise protocol compared to placebo (p<0.05). There was no difference between PBMT-sMF and placebo in the remaining outcomes tested. Volunteers did not report adverse events. Our results suggest that PBMT-sMF is able to decrease skeletal muscle fatigue, accelerating post-exercise recovery and, consequently, increasing subsequent physical performance when applied between two sets of exercises.

Prolonged Sojourn at Very High Altitude Decreases Sea-Level Anaerobic Performance, Anaerobic Threshold, and Fat Mass.

Background: The influence of high altitude on an organism’s physiology depends on the length and the level of hypoxic exposure it experiences. This study aimed to determine the effect of a prolonged sojourn at very high altitudes (above 3,500m) on subsequent sea-level physical performance, body weight, body composition, and hematological parameters.Materials and Methods: Ten alpinists, nine males and one female, with a mean age of 27±4years, participated in the study. All had been on mountaineering expeditions to 7,000m peaks, where they spent 30±1days above 3,500m with their average sojourn at 4,900±60m. Their aerobic and anaerobic performance, body weight, body composition, and hematological parameters were examined at an altitude of 100m within 7days before the expeditions and 7days after they descended below 3,500m.Results: We found a significant (p<0.01) decrease in maximal anaerobic power (MAPWAnT) from 9.9±1.3 to 9.2±1.3W·kg−1, total anaerobic work from 248.1±23.8 to 228.1±20.1J·kg−1, anaerobic threshold from 39.3±8.0 to 27.8±5.6 mlO2·kg−1·min−1, body fat mass from 14.0±3.1 to 11.5±3.3%, and a significant increase (p<0.05) in maximal tidal volume from 3.2 [3.0–3.2] to 3.5 [3.3–3.9] L after their sojourn at very high attitude. We found no significant changes in maximal aerobic power, maximal oxygen uptake, body weight, fat-free mass, total body water, hemoglobin, and hematocrit.Conclusion: A month-long exposure to very high altitude led to impaired sea-level anaerobic performance and anaerobic threshold, increased maximal tidal volume, and depleted body fat mass, but had no effect on maximal aerobic power, maximal oxygen uptake, or hemoglobin and hematocrit levels.

Investigating the Effects of Mental Fatigue on Resistance Exercise Performance.

Mental fatigue can impart negative effects on subsequent physical performance, although the mechanisms underlying these effects are not well understood. This study examined whether mental fatigue confers negative carryover effects on the performance of a set of biceps curls, while also investigating physiological and psychological mechanisms proposed to explain the predicted effect. A randomized, cross-over design was employed. On visit 1, participants (N = 10) performed a barbell biceps curl one-repetition maximum (1RM) test. On visits 2–3, participants performed 20 biceps curls at 50% of their 1RM, followed by their respective 10 min experimental manipulation (high vs. low cognitive exertion) and then a second set of biceps curls to exhaustion. Ratings of perceived exertion and electromyography of the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, upper trapezius, thoracic erector spinae and lumbar erector spinae were recorded during the physical task. The total number of repetitions completed was similar across the conditions. Results also failed to show between-condition differences for muscle activation and perceptions of exertion. Future research is needed to build an adequate knowledge base to determine whether there is an effect of mental fatigue on dynamic resistance-based task performance and, if so, identify the mechanisms explaining how and why.

Manipulation of the Duration of the Initial Self-Control Task Within the Sequential-Task Paradigm: Effect on Exercise Performance.

Self-control exertion on an initial task has been associated with impaired performance on subsequent physical tasks also requiring self-control; an effect suggested to be mediated by changes in perceptions of pain and motivation. However, the effects of spending longer on the initial self-control task are unknown. This study, therefore, explored the potential for the duration of the initial self-control task to influence subsequent physical performance, perceptions of pain, and perceived motivation; particularly during the early stages of the physical task. In a within-subject design, 29 participants (11 male, 18 female) completed a wall-sit task until volitional exhaustion, on four separate occasions. Prior to each wall-sit, participants completed either a non-self-control task (congruent Stroop task) for 4 min, or a self-control task (incongruent Stroop task) for 4 (short duration), 8 (medium duration), or 16 (long duration) min. Participant’s perceptions of pain and motivation were recorded every 30 s during the wall-sit. Wall-sit performance time was analyzed using one-way ANOVA and perceptions of pain and motivation analyzed using multi-level modeling. Wall-sit performance time was significantly longer on the non-self-control exertion trial compared to all other trials (all p < 0.01), as well as longer on both the short duration and medium duration self-control exertion trials compared to the long duration self-control exertion trial (both p < 0.001). Perceptions of initial (at 30 s) pain and motivation were different between the trials (main effect of trial: pain, p = 0.001; motivation, p < 0.001); whereby longer durations of self-control exertion increased perceptions of pain and decreased motivation. The decrease in motivation during the wall-sit task was greater on the long duration self-control exertion trial compared to all other trials (trial∗time interactions, all p < 0.05). The present study provides novel evidence that spending longer on the initial self-control task led to greater detrimental effects on subsequent wall-sit performance time. Furthermore, longer duration self-control exertion tasks led to increased perceptions of pain and decreased motivation within the first 30 s of the wall-sit task, as well as a greater decrease in motivation across the wall-sit task. These attentional and motivational shifts may explain performance decrements following the exertion of self-control.

Cognitive Fatigue Effects on Physical Performance: The Role of Interoception.

The consensus of opinion, with regard to the effect of cognitive fatigue on subsequent physical performance, is that there is a small, negative effect, but there is no consensus regarding the mechanisms involved. When glucose levels are normal, undertaking cognitive tasks does not induce energy or neurotransmitter depletion. The adenosine hypothesis is questioned as cognitively induced increases in adenosine release are phasic and transient, while persistent effects of adenosine are tonic. Thus, the most likely explanation for a negative effect of cognitive fatigue would appear to be changes in perceptions of effort, for which there is some evidence from subjective participant feedback, while interoceptive theory would suggest a role for motivation levels. Cognitive fatigue and physical fatigue are dependent on interoceptive mechanisms, in particular the interactions between top-down predictions of effort from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) to the insula cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, ventromedial and ventrolateral PFC, and bottom-up feedback from the lamina I spinothalamic pathway, and the vagal and glossopharyngeal medullothalamic pathway. The dopaminergic mesocorticolimbic and the locus coeruleus-noradrenaline pathways are also vital. It would appear that cognitive fatigue leads to different predictions of the expected sensory consequences of undertaking the exercise than in the control condition and there is some evidence that motivation can overcome this. Much more research, in which motivation levels are manipulated, is necessary as the effects are small and the reasons for cognitive fatigue causing changes in predictions of sensory consequences are not clear.

A 4-week endurance training program improves tolerance to mental exertion in untrained individuals

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to investigate whether 4 weeks of endurance training could improve tolerance to mental exertion in untrained participants. DesignLongitudinal training study. MethodsTwenty untrained young adults (14 F, 6 M; 27.6±6.2 years) completed a 4-week training protocol in a randomised and counterbalanced order. Baseline and follow-up assessment were conducted over three sessions in the week preceding and following the training period. During session 1, participants completed an incremental maximal ramp test. During sessions 2 and 3 participants completed a 15min cycling time trial preceded by either a mental exertion or control conditions. Following baseline assessments, participants were randomised into a physical training or placebo group that completed the training intervention thrice weekly over four weeks. ResultsThe physical training resulted in increase in VO2 peak relative to the placebo group (p=0.003). Linear Mixed Models utilising the control condition time trial performance as a covariate found the physical training group increased their time trial distance following the mental exertion condition to a greater extent than the placebo group (p=0.03). RPE during the time trial and perceptual measures of mental exertion did not significantly change between groups (all p>0.10) although interaction effects were observed when considering the RPE-power output relationship during the time trial. ConclusionsFour weeks of endurance training increased tolerance to mental exertion in untrained participants during a subsequent physical performance, but not during prolonged cognitive performance. This finding suggests that the ability to tolerate mental exertion is trainable in at least some contexts and highlights the far-reaching benefits of endurance training.

Lower-body compression garments worn following exercise improves perceived recovery but not subsequent performance in basketball athletes

ABSTRACTThis study examined the effects of lower-body compression garments on perceived recovery and subsequent performance in basketball athletes. In a parallel-group design, 30 recreational, male basketball athletes were randomly allocated to either a control (CON, n = 15, loose-fitting clothing) or experimental group (COMP, n = 15, compression garments) for 15 h following fatigue-inducing, basketball-specific exercise in the evening (1600-1800 h). Perceptual measures of fatigue and muscle soreness, as well as physical performance tests (sprints, jumps and agility), were performed pre-exercise, post-exercise, and post-recovery (15 h following exercise). Subjective and objective measures of sleep were recorded following the exercise trial. There were non-significant (p > 0.05), unclear-trivial differences between groups for all performance measures. Perceived post-recovery fatigue (d = −1.27, large) and muscle soreness (d = −1.61, large) were significantly lower in COMP compared to CON (p < 0.05). COMP exhibited better perceived sleep quality (d = 0.42, small, p = 0.18) than CON, with an unclear difference in sleep duration between groups (p > 0.05). Wearing lower-body compression garments overnight improved perceived fatigue and muscle soreness, but had negligible effects on subsequent physical performance in basketball athletes. Future research should focus on longer periods of compression wear following fatiguing exercise.

Effects of Prior Cognitive Exertion on Physical Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

An emerging body of the literature in the past two decades has generally shown that prior cognitive exertion is associated with a subsequent decline in physical performance. Two parallel, but overlapping, bodies of literature (i.e., ego depletion, mental fatigue) have examined this question. However, research to date has not merged these separate lines of inquiry to assess the overall magnitude of this effect. The present work reports theresults of a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis examining carryover effects of cognitive exertion on physical performance. A systematic search of MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus was conducted. Only randomized controlled trials involving healthy humans, a central executive task requiring cognitive exertion, an easier cognitive comparison task, and a physical performance task were included. A total of 73 studies provided 91 comparisons with 2581 participants. Random effects meta-analysis showed a significant small-to-medium negative effect of prior cognitive exertion on physical performance (g = - 0.38 [95% CI - 0.46, - 0.31]). Subgroup analyses showed that cognitive tasks lasting < 30-min (g = - 0.45) and ≥ 30-min (g = - 0.30) have similar significant negative effects on subsequent physical performance. Prior cognitive exertion significantly impairs isometric resistance (g = - 0.57), motor (g = - 0.57), dynamic resistance (g = - 0.51), and aerobic performance (g = - 0.26), but the effects on maximal anaerobic performance are trivial and non-significant (g = 0.10). Studies employing between-subject designs showed a medium negative effect (g = - 0.65), whereas within-subject designs had a small negative effect (g = - 0.28). Findings demonstrate that cognitive exertion has a negative effect on subsequent physical performance that is not due to chance and suggest that previous meta-analysis results may have underestimated the overall effect.

The effect of ego depletion or mental fatigue on subsequent physical endurance performance: A meta-analysis

Two independent lines of research propose that exertion of mental effort can impair subsequent performance due to ego depletion or mental fatigue. In this meta-analysis, we unite these research fields to facilitate a greater exchange between the two, to summarize the extant literature and to highlight open questions.We performed a meta-analysis to quantify the effect of ego-depletion and mental fatigue on subsequent physical endurance performance (42 independent effect sizes).We found that ego-depletion or mental fatigue leads to a reduction in subsequent physical endurance performance (ES = -0.506 [95% CI: -0.649, -0.369]) and that the duration of prior mental effort exertion did not predict the magnitude of subsequent performance impairment (r = -0.043). Further, analyses revealed that effects of prior mental exertion are more pronounced in subsequent tasks that use isolation tasks (e.g., handgrip; ES = -0.719 [-0.946, -0.493]) compared to whole-body endurance tasks (e.g. cycling; coefficient = 0.338 [0.057, 0.621]) and that the observed reduction in performance is higher when the person-situation fit is low (ES for high person-situation fit = -0.355 [-0.529, -0.181], coefficient for low person-situation fit = -0.336 [-0.599, -0.073]).Taken together, the aggregate of the published literature on ego depletion or mental fatigue indicates that prior mental exertion is detrimental to subsequent physical endurance performance. However, this analysis also highlights several open questions regarding the effects’ mechanisms and moderators. Particularly, the surprising finding that the duration of prior mental exertion seems to be unrelated to subsequent performance impairment needs to be addressed systematically.