Subsequent Delinquent Behavior Research Articles

Revisiting labeling theory: empirical test of informal labeling process

ABSTRACT Despite the revitalization of labeling theory in explaining deviant behavior, the theoretical validity of the proposition regarding the informal labeling process has been largely neglected. To examine the proposed informal labeling process within the labeling theory, longitudinal path analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling, drawing on a nationally representative sample of adolescents in South Korea. The results revealed that engagement in delinquent behavior at Wave 1 had a significant impact on how others informally labeled the individual at Wave 2. Also, informal labeling by others at Wave 2 significantly influenced the development of deviant self-identity at Wave 3, and this deviant self-identity increased the likelihood of engaging in subsequent delinquent behavior at Wave 4. Namely, the hypothesized informal labeling process in labeling theory was supported: informal labeling based on previous delinquent behavior → development of deviant self-identity → engaging in subsequent delinquent behavior among adolescents. The findings from this study highlight the theoretical importance of the informal labeling process in explaining delinquent behavior among adolescents from a longitudinal perspective. The research implications are discussed.

The Impact of Life Domains on Delinquent Behaviors in Five Caribbean Countries: A Partial Test of Agnew's General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.

The current study tests the applicability of Agnew's (2005) general theory of crime and delinquency to a sample of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) youths and explains the hypothesized direct and indirect/mediated effects of family attachment and peer delinquency on delinquent behaviors. Data for this study were obtained from a 2014 cross-sectional survey of 512 adolescents from the five members of the CARICOM. This study utilizes mediation analysis. Results reveal that adolescents with abuse experience from family members and unsafe school environments are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. Furthermore, peer delinquency is significantly related to delinquent behavior and mediates the link between child abuse, family history of violence, unsafe school environment, and subsequent delinquent behavior. Finally, child abuse generated a lower level of family attachment, and then a higher level of family attachment led to a lower likelihood of subsequent delinquent behavior.

Describing associations between child maltreatment frequency and the frequency and timing of subsequent delinquent or criminal behaviors across development: variation by sex, sexual orientation, and race

BackgroundChild maltreatment has been linked to lower health, education, and income later in life, and is associated with increased engagement in delinquent or criminal behaviors. This paper explores trajectories of these behaviors from adolescence into early adulthood and tests maltreatment as a predictor, and whether observed patterns are consistent across different demographic groups.MethodsUsing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of U.S. adolescents (in grades 7–12 in the 1994–95 school year), we ran linear mixed effects models to estimate growth curves of two dependent variables: violent and nonviolent offending behavior. We tested if maltreatment altered the intercept or slope of the curves and how the curves of these behaviors and the associations between them and maltreatment varied by sex, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation.ResultsThe sample (n = 10,613) had equal proportions males and females, approximately one third identified as a race/ethnicity other than white, and over 10% were non-heterosexual. Experiences of maltreatment were highest for Native Americans and lowest for whites. Models indicated that males were more likely than females to engage in both violent and nonviolent offending and respondents who identified as non-heterosexual were more likely than their heterosexual peers to engage in nonviolent offending behavior. When maltreatment was included in models as a predictor, adolescents who experienced maltreatment had a more rapid increase in their non-violent offending behavior. For violent offending behavior, adolescents who experienced maltreatment had higher levels of offending and the levels progressively increased as maltreatment frequency did. Sex was a moderator; the relationship between maltreatment and predicted nonviolent offending was stronger for males than it was for females. Race/ethnicity and sexual orientation did not moderate the associations between maltreatment and offending behavior.ConclusionsThis study provides insights from a nationally representative sample into the pattern of both delinquent and criminal behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood, describing not only how the pattern varies over time, but also by sociodemographics and offending type. Additionally, it highlights how the association between maltreatment and these behaviors varies by both offending type and sex.

The Effects of Internet use on School Adjustment and Delinquency

This study aimed to investigate the long-term relationships between the types of Internet use, school adjustment problems, and delinquent behaviors among Korean adolescents, using the longitudinal data of 7th–9th graders from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS). In particular, Internet use was divided into three types, viz. communication, information-seeking, and entertainment, and the effects of each type of Internet use on two types of delinquency (i.e., cyber and actual delinquency) were analyzed. Additionally, the indirect impact of Internet use on delinquency through school maladjustment was investigated. The results were as follows. Only the entertainment type was found to have significant direct positive effects on both actual delinquency and cyber delinquency. Furthermore, all three types of Internet use (communication, information seeking, and entertainment) were found to have significant indirect effects on actual delinquency mediated by school maladjustment. Whereas the communication and entertainment types were positively associated with school maladjustment and, in turn, with subsequent delinquent behaviors, the information seeking type was negatively associated with school maladjustment and, in turn, with subsequent delinquent behaviors.

Self-efficacy, aspirations, and residential placement outcomes: Why belief in a prosocial self matters

PurposeWhile prior research has documented the relationship between self-efficacy and delinquency, there is a gap in the literature on how self-efficacy is related to the continuation of antisocial behavior for youth involved in the justice system. This study examines whether juvenile offenders' beliefs in their abilities to live a prosocial life predict conventional aspirations for the future. It also assesses the joint effects of self-efficacy and prosocial aspirations on length of stay in residential placement and recidivism among a sample of delinquent youth. MethodsWe examine relationships between self-efficacy, aspirations, and residential placement outcomes using a sample of 12,955 juvenile offenders who completed a juvenile justice residential placement program in Florida. A generalized structural equation model that controls for demographics and various risk factors was used to model the multiple outcomes of varying levels of measurement. ResultsYouth with higher prosocial self-efficacy report higher prosocial aspirations for their future. Self-efficacy and aspirations are also negatively related to lengths of stay in residential placement and subsequent delinquent behavior. ConclusionsJuvenile justice interventions should target youths' attitudes and beliefs related to prosocial identity. Cognitive behavioral interventions, positive reinforcement of prosocial behavior, and skill training may help prevent youth recidivism.

Risk factors that influence the maltreatment-offending association: A systematic review of prospective and longitudinal studies

The association between exposure to maltreatment during childhood or adolescence and subsequent delinquent or offending behaviors has been repeatedly documented in the scientific literature. Despite this, the nature of this relationship remains unclear and, in particular, whether problematic behavior arises directly as a result of the maltreatment, other co-existing risk factors or an interaction between maltreatment and these risk factors. This systematic review aims to organize evidence on this topic in relation to an ecological perspective that encompasses the multi-faceted nature of the maltreatment-offending association. A final pool of 62 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results and discussion are organized according to four main sections: taxonomic categories of maltreatment (e.g., the type or timing of abuse, as well as how welfare involvement or placement in out-of-home care influences outcomes), individual risk factors (e.g., emotional and behavioral problems), social risk factors (e.g., characteristics of the family, parents and peers), and contextual risk factors (e.g., neighborhood characteristics). As consistent with ecological theory, a multitude of factors contribute to the maltreatment offending association. The application of a conceptual framework to guide future research and treatment is discussed.

Childhood acquired brain injury and subsequent delinquent behavior: A retrospective study of demographic, injury-related, neurological and cognitive characteristics in a sample of 40 patients

Childhood acquired brain injury (ABI) is responsible for severe cognitive and behavioural disorders, sometimes leading to violent and/or offending behaviours. The aim of this study was to review the cases of patients treated in a rehabilitation unit dedicated to children with ABI, who subsequently demonstrated behaviors leading to an intervention of the police and/or the justice, and identify any common characteristics. Retrospective inventory of patients with ABI treated in a single rehabilitation department, who subsequently had contact with the police/justice following offenses. We collected demographic factors, type and severity of ABI, initial neurological examination, first and last neuropsychological assessment, type of schooling pre- and post-injury, and data from their offenses. Searches retrieved 40 patients (36 boys): 34 traumatic brain injury (TBI; 27 severe), 4 brain tumours, 1 frontal hemorrhagic stroke and 1 anoxia; mean age at injury was 9.7 years [SD = 4; (2.1–15.7)]. In 88% of cases, none of the parents had graduated from high school. Half of the children had previous school difficulties and 30% had repeated a grade. Overall, children sustained severe injuries, with impaired neurological function, major cognitive deficits [mean initial full-scale IQ 73.1 (SD = 12.8)] without significant improvement [77.4 (SD = 13.4) at the last assessment]. The processing speed index was particularly low [73.2 (±15.4)] and did not improve over time. 76% had behavioural disorders already evident during hospitalization. Upon discharge, 62% required adapted and/or specialized schooling. After an average follow-up of 8 and a half years, only 6 patients still followed an ordinary curriculum and 8 were not attending school anymore. Four girls were victims, and among 36 boys, all were perpetrators, but 3 had been victims previously. The offenses were mainly cases of violence (56%), but also entailed thefts, traffic offences, sexual assaults, drug use and vandalism. Children with ABI who suffer or commit offenses are mainly boys, from very low socioeconomic background, with pre-injury academic and social difficulties, who sustained severe TBI. They suffer very severe and disabling cognitive deficits and behavioral disorders. Multidisciplinary care and follow-up of those children more at risk is essential in the long-term.

Are Community Violence-Exposed Youth at Risk of Engaging in Delinquent Behavior? A Review and Implications for Residential Treatment Research and Practice

Numerous studies have documented a direct association between children’s exposure to community violence and subsequent delinquent behavior. Regrettably, an understanding of the community violence exposure-delinquent behavior link is incomplete because violence-exposed children rarely engage in delinquency immediately. Rather, there are complex, developmental pathways in which these children experience behavioral problems before subsequently exhibiting delinquent behavior. Despite the importance of understanding the mechanisms that illuminate how children exposed to violence in the community might engage in delinquency, relatively few studies have investigated potential mechanisms. This review proposes four potential mechanisms: depression, anxiety/PTSD, conduct disorder, and aggression. More specifically, we examine how certain internalizing and externalizing behaviors can potentially mediate the relationship between community violence exposure and delinquent behavior. We also discuss implications for residential treatment research and practice.

Sexualized Behaviors Partially Mediate the Link between Maltreatment and Delinquent Behaviors

The link between child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency has been well established, yet the underlying mechanisms through which the relationship may be explained are not very well understood. Although sexualized behaviors have been most studied in the context of sexual abuse, increasing evidence suggests that a broader conceptualization is warranted. Therefore, the current study tested sexualized behaviors as a mediator in the relation between child maltreatment of any type and delinquent behaviors using structural equation modeling. This study used a multi-site prospective sample of 804 children who were at high-risk for experiencing maltreatment and part of the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect consortium. This study found that reported maltreatment was related to delinquency, and sexualized behaviors partially mediated the relationship between child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency. Specifically, children with more maltreatment reports before age 8 had increased sexualized behaviors at age 8, which in turn predicted greater delinquent behaviors at age 12. These results suggest that in addition to maltreatment experiences, early sexualized behaviors (i.e., at age 8) may also be markers for subsequent delinquent behaviors (i.e., at age 12). Researchers and clinicians should work to further clarify the connections among child maltreatment, sexualized behaviors, and delinquency.

The protective role of prosocial behaviors on antisocial behaviors: The mediating effects of deviant peer affiliation

Prosocial behaviors, actions intended to help others, may serve a protective function against association with deviant peers and subsequent delinquent and antisocial behaviors. The present study examined the relations among specific types of prosocial behaviors, deviant peer affiliation, and delinquent and aggressive behaviors. Six hundred and sixty-six adolescents (46% girls; M age = 15.33, SD = .47) from Valencia, Spain completed questionnaires of prosocial behaviors, affiliation with deviant peers, antisocial behaviors, and aggression. Results showed that antisocial behaviors were negatively related only to specific forms of prosocial behaviors. Further analyses showed that deviant peer affiliation mediated the relations between compliant prosocial behavior and delinquency and aggression. Although altruism was not directly related to delinquency and aggression, it was indirectly linked to the behaviors via deviant peer affiliation. Discussion focuses on the relevance of specific forms of prosocial behaviors to antisocial behaviors and the risk of deviant peers for prosocial youth.

The Effect of Police Contact

Current police policies are based on assumptions that proactive policing strategies will not only deter crime but will also improve police–community relations. Deterrence theorists argue that general and specific deterrence can be achieved through such policing strategies. Labeling proponents, however, maintain that juveniles stopped and/or arrested by the police, rather than be deterred, will actually engage in more delinquency as a result of this contact. Research to date has provided mixed evidence. The current study seeks to inform this debate by examining the effect of being stopped or arrested on subsequent delinquent behavior and attitudes. Relying on three waves of data from a multisite sample of youth, we use propensity score matching to control for preexisting differences among youth who have and have not experienced police contact. Our findings reveal that being stopped or arrested not only increases future delinquency but also amplifies deviant attitudes.

Measuring the Contextual Effects and Mitigating Factors of Labeling Theory

Despite the longevity of labeling theory, there remains a need for further empirical validation. We examine three ways that official intervention may lead to secondary (that which occurs following the fixation of a label) deviance: self-concept, pro-social expectations, and association with deviant peers. We examine a sample of labeled and non-labeled individuals, utilizing data from the Children at Risk study. Based on our analytical view of a three-year panel of 677 randomly selected juveniles, ordinary least squares regression shows that official intervention with the criminal justice system leads to an increased delinquent self-identity, decreased pro-social expectations, and an increased association with delinquent peers, which then lead to an increased likelihood of engaging in subsequent delinquency. While validating the theory, we suggest a revised model of labeling that better depicts the complicated association between formal labeling and subsequent delinquent behavior. We conclude with policy suggestions based on less formal interventions for offenders.

Examining Resource and Protective Factors in the Adjustment of Latino Youth in Low Income Families: What Role Does Maternal Acculturation Play?

This longitudinal study examined whether the risk and positive factors contributing to the delinquent behaviors and internalizing problems of 454 Latino adolescents varied across maternal linguistic acculturation and adolescent gender. Although the level of cumulative risk to which the 10-to-14-year old adolescents were exposed did not vary by maternal linguistic acculturation, the factors contributing to their subsequent adjustment 16 months later varied substantially. Multiple regression analyses showed that for boys, maternal monitoring offset cumulative risk effects in the high acculturation group, but was unrelated to adjustment in the low acculturation group. Social competence served a protective function for boys in the high acculturation group, but was detrimental for boys in the low acculturation group and mother-son relationship quality directly predicted more subsequent delinquent behaviors among boys in the low acculturation group. Maternal monitoring was the only positive factor contributing to girls’ adjustment, directly predicting fewer delinquent behaviors for all girls.

Verbal Abuse by the Teacher and Child Adjustment From Kindergarten Through Grade 6

Many adults mention past incidences of verbal abuse by the teacher as the most overwhelming negative experience in their lives. The present study examined (1) the course and stability of verbal abuse by the teacher from kindergarten through grade 4 and (2) the link between verbal abuse by the teacher and children's behavioral, emotional, and academic adjustment. Participants were 399 children (177 girls) who were assessed yearly over a period of 7 years, starting in kindergarten. Verbal abuse by the teacher, as well as acceptance versus rejection by the peer group from kindergarten through grade 4, were assessed through peer nomination. Child adjustment from kindergarten through grade 4 (antisocial behavior, attention problems, anxiety) was evaluated by the teacher. Child adjustment in early adolescence (delinquent behavior, depressive feelings, academic performance) was assessed by teacher evaluations and self-reports. The vast majority of children (approximately 85%) have almost 0 risk of becoming a target of verbal abuse by the teacher over the course of elementary school. However, a small minority of children (15%) seems to be at relatively high risk of verbal abuse by the teacher in kindergarten, and this risk increases even further over the course of elementary school. Boys, as well as children with high levels of early antisocial behavior and attention problems in kindergarten, are at high risk of verbal abuse by the teacher during elementary school. In turn, verbal abuse by the teacher is significantly related to subsequent delinquent behavior and academic difficulties in early adolescence, although this effect depends on child characteristics. Verbal abuse by the teacher seems to be a highly stable phenomenon for at-risk children. Children who are relatively well adjusted are at low risk of becoming the target of verbal abuse by the teacher. If they do, however, these children are the most vulnerable to subsequent developmental difficulties.

Official Labeling, Criminal Embeddedness, and Subsequent Delinquency

This article examines the short-term impact of formal criminal labeling on involvement in deviant social networks and increased likelihood of subsequent delinquency. According to labeling theory, formal criminal intervention should affect the individual’s immediate social networks. In many cases, the stigma of the criminal status may increase the probability that the individual becomes involved in deviant social groups. The formal label may thus ultimately increase involvement in subsequent deviance. We use panel data of a sample of urban adolescents to examine whether involvement in deviant social groups mediates the relationship between juvenile justice intervention and subsequent delinquent behavior. Using measures from three successive points in time, the authors find that juvenile justice intervention positively affects subsequent involvement in serious delinquency through the medium of involvement in deviant social groups, namely, street gangs and delinquent peers.

Peer relationship antecedents of delinquent behavior in late adolescence: Is there evidence of demographic group differences in developmental processes?

A longitudinal prospective design was used to test the generalizability of low levels of social preference and high levels of antisocial peer involvement as risk factors for delinquent behavior problems to African American (AA) and European American (EA) boys and girls (N = 384). Social preference scores were computed from peer reports in middle childhood (ages 6-9). Parents and adolescents reported antisocial peer involvement in early adolescence (ages 13-16) and adolescents reported on their own delinquent behavior in late adolescence (ages 17 and 18). Analyses tested for differences across four groups (AA boys, EA boys, AA girls, EA girls) in construct measurement, mean levels, and associations among variables. Few measurement differences were found. Mean-level differences were found for social preference and delinquent behavior. AA boys were least accepted by peers and reported the highest level of delinquent behavior. EA girls were most accepted by peers and reported the lowest level of delinquent behavior. Associations among peer experiences and delinquent behavior were equivalent across groups, with lower levels of social preference and higher levels of antisocial peer involvement associated with more delinquent behavior. Person-centered analyses showed the risk associated with low social preference and high antisocial peer involvement to be similar across groups, providing further evidence of the generalizability of the peer relationship experiences as risk factors for subsequent delinquent behavior problems.

Participation in Victim-Offender Mediation and the Prevalence of Subsequent Delinquent Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

Objective: This article reports the results of a meta-analytic study of the relationship between participation in victim-offender mediation (VOM) and the prevalence of subsequent delinquent behavior. Method: Analyses were conducted with the results of 15 studies, conducted at 19 different sites, with a sample of 9,307 juveniles. Results: The results suggested that methodological factors explained all the significant variation across sites and studies in the magnitude of the difference between non-VOM and VOM groups in their reoffense prevalence. The odds of VOM participants were only about .70 as great as the odds of nonparticipants reoffending. Conclusion: The results support the efforts of social workers to advocate for, develop, and participate in VOM programs.

The Prevention of Violent Behavior by Chronic and Serious Male Juvenile Offenders

Over the past several decades, an increasing number of youth have been incarcerated for violent offenses. Existing interventions for serious offenders target the prevention of subsequent delinquent behavior in general, rather than the prevention of violent behavior in particular. Within the context of a randomized clinical trial of 79 adolescent males involved in the juvenile justice system, we examine the ability of multidimensional treatment foster care (MTFC) to prevent subsequent violent offending relative to services-as-usual group home care (GC). Data on offending were collected every 6 months for a 2-year period following entry into the study. The method of generalized estimating equations was used to analyze the data. Results indicate that MTFC youth were significantly less likely to commit violent offenses than youth placed in services-as-usual group care. The group effect held even after control variables, including age at placement, age at first arrest, official and self-reported prior offenses, and time since baseline,were introduced into the model. Twenty-four percent of GC youth had two or more criminal referrals for violent offenses in the 2 years following baseline versus only 5% of MTFC youth. The rates of self-reported violent offending for MTFC youth were in the normative range following baseline, whereas rates for GC youth were 4 to 9 times higher. MTFC youth were also significantly less likely to report incidents of common violence, such as hitting.

Predicting Attrition to Prevent Service Gaps in Serving Juvenile Offenders

Objective: The purpose of this study was to: (a) investigate differences in demographic variables, previous delinquent/criminal behavior variables, family system variables, juvenile court system variables, and subsequent delinquent behavior variables between youth who received services and those who did not among court-involved juvenile delinquent youth; and (b) create a predictive model that would correctly identify youth at the greatest risk of not receiving services. Method: The study employed an analysis of 244 youth, 182 (75%) service recipients and 62 (25%) non-recipients, randomly selected from a larger pool of 500 juvenile court-involved youth. Results: Analysis indicated that very few of the demographic variables, delinquent/criminal behavior variables, family system variables, and juvenile court system variables differentiated between service recipients and non-recipients. However, a logistic regression model was developed that correctly predicted service receipt for 78% of the sample, which represented a 52.4% improvement over chance. Conclusion: Implications of the findings for identifying court-involved youth at risk of receiving no services were explored and discussed.

Friends' Behavior, the Hedonist Lifestyle and Delinquent and Moral Behavior Two Years Later

ABSTRACT Whereas the influence of consumption of pornographic and other problematic activities on young people's delinquent involvement has been a popular concern in Hong Kong, it has not acquired rigorous and generalizable evidence from longitudinal research. With a baseline study of 2,500 randomly selected young people and a follow-up study of 1,686 of them, the present study examined the activities and delinquent and moral behavior over a period of two years. Results from structural equation modeling reveal that the activities and their composite factor, known as the hedonist lifestyle, had only weak effects on subsequent delinquent and moral behavior. The apparent contribution of the hedonist lifestyle disappeared in the model that included friends' behavior as the antecedent. Hence, friends' delinquent behavior and moral behavior were more important predictors and explained away effects of the hedonist lifestyle. These findings are consistent with the interpretation of subculture theory that focuses on the subculture and lifestyle shared among friends as a root of young people's behavior. Hence, the hedonist lifestyle is primarily a concomitant of the delinquent subculture and unlikely to be a unique predictor of delinquent behavior.