Subordinate Employees Research Articles

Значение руководителя служебного коллектива органа внутренних дел в формировании нормативного поведения его участников: эмпирическое исследование

Introduction. Increasing the effectiveness of the activity of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation in modern conditions focuses on psychological factors of its implementation both individually (by particular employees) and in the process of cooperative actions (by service staffs). Special consideration should be given to the role of the head as an organiser and regulator of the activities of subordinate employees, who is responsible for the quality and legality of their actions. Existing ideas on the interaction of service staff members characterise the role of the head in different ways, but empirically insufficiently verify its significance in teams with different levels of functional relations and normative behaviour. The prerequisite of the present research is the replenishment of scientific and practical knowledge of the role of the head of the service staff as a regulator of functional relations and normative behaviour of internal affairs officers. The purpose of the research is to reveal the significance of the attitude to the head of the service staff when assessing the influence of functional characteristics of relations in the service staff on the understanding normative behaviour among its members. Research methods. A set of psychodiagnostic questionnaires was used: ‘Subjective assessment of intragroup relations’ (S. V. Dukhnovsky, K. V. Zlokazov), ‘Attitude of an employee to the performed activity, his direct supervisor and his reputation’ (A. A. Sarsenova), ‘Normativity. Intelligence. Regulation’ (S. V. Dukhnovsky, V. M. Kofanov). The sample of the research consisted of 160 employees of internal affairs bodies (112 males and 48 females aged from 29 to 43 years). Regression analysis was used as a method of data processing. Results. The authors found out that the normative behaviour of service team members is determined by functional-negative characteristics of their interaction and is an independent cause of service discipline violations. This fact testifies that negative forms of interaction of service team members (aimlessness, uncontrollability, connivance) as well as relations (hostility, negativism and conflict) reduce the level of normative service behaviour. It is determined that the attitude of employees to the head of the service team mediates the influence of functional-negative characteristics, acting as a regulator of their service behaviour. The results of the research expand scientific ideas on psychology of management of formal groups (by the example of service staffs) and can be used in preparation of employees of internal affairs bodies for positions of junior and middle supervising staffs.

How positive leadership leads to employees’ interpersonal citizenship behavior: a self-consistency perspective

PurposeAlthough researchers have carried out considerable work on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the questions of whether and how adopting a positive leadership style leads subordinate employees to engage in interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB) remain, thus far, unanswered. To address this research gap, this study aimed to uncover the possible underlying mediation mechanism.Design/methodology/approachPartial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the research model using data collected by means of a three-wave online survey with 166 respondents.FindingsThe results indicated that the organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) of subordinate employees mediated the effect of supervisors using a positive leadership style on subordinates engaging in person-focused ICB.Originality/valueThe importance of positive leadership is revealed in the finding of a self-consistency-based positive spillover effect, according to which the use of a positive leadership style directly benefits subordinates by enhancing their OBSE. This subsequently motivates them to engage in person-focused ICB, which benefits their coworkers. Thus, a positive leadership style creates a positive dynamic in the workplace.

Leader workaholism and subordinates' psychological distress: The moderating role of justice climate

Leader workaholism, characterized by an excessive drive to work long hours, is prevalent among organizational leaders. Its impact on subordinates' mental health warrants examination. This study investigated the direct relationship between leader workaholism and subordinates' psychological distress. Drawing on substitutes for leadership theory, it also assessed the buffering effects of procedural, interactional, and distributive justice climates in this relationship. Data from an online survey of 40 leaders and 200 subordinate employees revealed a positive correlation between leader workaholism and subordinates' psychological distress. However, the procedural and interactional justice climates negatively moderated this relationship, whereas the distributive justice climate did not. This disparity may result from the strong link between distributive justice climate and specific, objective outcomes. The study enhances understanding of the adverse effects of leader workaholism on employee psychological health and suggests organizational strategies, such as fostering procedural and interactional justice climates, to mitigate these effects.

The Blurry Line Between Corporation and Cult: A Retrospective Autoethnographic Study

In popular management literature corporations are sometimes loosely compared to cults. The comparison is a severe allegation as it implies the transgression of subordinate employees’ integrity. This paper explores to what extent such comparisons with cults are warranted as well as the implications this has for the practice of corporate culture management. On grounds of the author’s unique, first-hand experience in both corporate and cultic environments a retrospective autoethnographic (RAE) approach was chosen to further explore the supposed resemblance. The comparison is structured along Lifton’s eight criteria of thought reform and reveals that although akin to cults in all aspects corporations also fundamentally differ due to the infeasibility, at least for now, of controlling the corporate environment in totalist fashion. This might explain why so many attempts to change corporate cultures fail as these initiatives are based on the anachronistic idea that culture change can be “implemented” by somehow “inculcating” employees with “company values.” A sanitized form of brainwashing that fails in the corporate environment.

Методическое обеспечение педагогического содержания управленческой деятельности руководителя органа внутренних дел Российской Федерации

The article defines the importance of the pedagogical aspect of the managerial activity of the head of the internal affairs body of the Russian Federation. The author focuses on the fact that for the effective implementation by the head of the internal affairs bodies of pedagogical functions that implement the pedagogical content of management activities, he should form pedagogical competence. The pedagogical competence of the head presupposes mastering the methodology of managerial activity, for which it is necessary to provide methodological support for the pedagogical content of the managerial activity of the head of the internal affairs body of the Russian Federation. Special attention is paid to pedagogical stimulation, presented as the process of applying external stimuli that interact with the motives and internal attitudes of the individual. The author presents the results of an empirical study of the motivation of official and professional activities, types of incentives and incentive measures, which substantiates the need to create a methodology for the application of pedagogical functions in the management activities of the head of the internal affairs body at any level. 350 employees of the internal affairs bodies took part in the study: 170 people – managers of various levels, 180 people - subordinates. The normalized sample from among the heads of the Department of Internal Affairs was distributed as follows: male managers – 54%, female – 46%. Age from 28 years to 51 years. The category of subordinate employees is represented by: male employees – 44% and female employees – 56%. The age of the interviewed employees ranges from 23 to 54 years. In conclusion, a reasoned conclusion is made about the importance and necessity of mastering the methodology of providing the pedagogical content of managerial activities by the heads of internal affairs bodies.

Design of Data Warehouse Technology for Data Performance Management in Universities

The purpose of this research is Change Management for Organizations to find out change management for organizations and organizational change factors by using the nine steps methodology approach developed by Kimball. The results of this study are that information technology assistance provided by Pelindo I is the right step. Moreover, the scope of the business being managed is so wide, covering ports in the Sumatran archipelago and overseeing thousands of employees. Business process automation is becoming an effective way for companies to force irresistible change. If the rules are written, even though they have been mutually agreed upon, employees can still work around them. But technology can be coercive effectively and can eventually lead to cultural change. Performance management is simply productivity, how can employee productivity be measured based on predetermined targets? MKE Pelindo I with a technology base makes everything completely objective, transparent, and has clear measurements. When each person is competing to make an optimal contribution to the company, at that time all the wheels of the organization will move dynamically. Then based on Kotter's 8-step evaluation, the change process that was carried out for the first time in 2004-2014 which was not conducive was caused by the not forming a strong enough team to direct the process. And this is what creates resistance also from employees. Then it wasn't created at the beginning of creating the right vision, but changes had been implemented, meaning that subordinate employees were invited to change without communicating a vision.

Polecenie w administracji publicznej. Wybrane problemy

The article presents selected problems concerning instructions in public administration. First, attention is paid to the official instruction. It is issued in service relationships, which differ from employment relationships. By issuing an official direction, the service superior obliges a subordinate employee to perform a specific official activity, including to submit a declaration of knowledge on public issues. An official direction is an individual administrative act.These official instructions are issued when it is necessary to correct the performance of public tasks by a subordinate employee. The obligation to comply with an official instruction is not absolute. The addressee of the instruction may raise objections and even refuse to execute an unlawful official instruction.Instructions issued by a superior authority to a subordinate authority constitute a separate group. Such an instruction is an internal act. It may concern the method of performing tasks or taking specific actions within the scope of operation of a subordinate authority. Instructions issued between public administration authorities are aimed at adapting activities to the directions of public policy and correcting the manner of performing public tasks. There is no appeal against an instruction issued by a superior authority. These are binding.The last category concerns intervention orders. The intervention order does not result from organizational superiority or official subordination. This is a request addressed to the public administration authority to take action to abolish the danger in emergency situations. Intervention orders are issued in particular in matters of protection of life, public health, property, protection of civil rights, maintenance of public policy.

Manager narcissism, target difficulty, and employee dysfunctional behavior

AbstractWe examine whether managers' narcissism explains the difficulty of the performance targets that they set for their subordinate employees and the resulting dysfunctional behaviors of these employees. Utilizing a field‐based data set and a government policy change that imposes higher performance standards, we document both direct and indirect associations between manager narcissism and employee dysfunctional behavior. In particular, we find that managers with a higher degree of narcissism respond to the higher performance standards by setting more difficult targets for their subordinates, which in turn lead to more employee dysfunctional behaviors. Furthermore, after controlling for the effect of target difficulty, we find that manager narcissism also has a direct positive association with employee dysfunctional behavior. Our findings contribute to the management accounting literature by documenting that narcissism, a personality trait that is ubiquitous among managers, plays an important role in affecting managers' control choices and the dysfunctional behaviors of lower‐level employees.

Corporate employee performance mechanism based on incomplete information contest theory

Abstract Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the mainstay of China’s social and economic development, and the implementation of performance appraisal systems in SMEs is an important way for enterprises to promote the growth of their employees, and each enterprise has a performance appraisal system that matches the characteristics of its own corporate culture. However, at present, objective factors such as the scale and operation of SMEs in China lead to the fact that employee performance appraisal cannot play a good role, and the decision-making level of SMEs understand the implementation of the performance appraisal for subordinate employees in a formal way, and cannot develop a performance appraisal system that is in line with the enterprise itself by combining with its development status. A reasonable performance appraisal system can improve the corporate cohesion and industry competitiveness of the company’s employees. The imperfection of the current corporate employee performance mechanism is not addressed, and the planning of objective employees is not uniform and reasonable enough. This paper constructs a model by analyzing many factors influencing the implementation of performance appraisal systems in SMEs and combining them with incomplete information race theory. Ultimately, we explore the strategies and methods of the performance appraisal for SMEs, cultivate talents for SMEs, enhance the sense of belonging and creativity of enterprise employees, and provide a strong guarantee for enterprise development.

How Green Bankers Promote Behavioral Integration of Green Investment and Financing Teams—Evidence from Chinese Commercial Banks

Facing the need for green investment and financing brought about by the process of “carbon neutrality”, more and more leaders of commercial banks have begun to initiate green transformation of their enterprises and become green bankers with green finance awareness and vision, while their subordinate green investment and financing teams, as executive units with complementary green finance knowledge, skills, information, and expertise, have become a key link in the bank’s green investment and financing management. Relying on structuration theory and using the multi-case study method, this research analyzes how green bankers promote the behavioral integration of green investment and financing teams from the perspective of team structure construction and deconstructs the process of transforming the development vision of green bankers into green investment and financing practices. Through a pairing study of eight commercial banks, it was found that green bankers can build a green investment and financing team structure to promote their behavioral integration through resources and rules. There are six effective strategies in the construction behavior, including: building a consensus on green finance strategy within the enterprise; guiding the green investment and financing team to exploratively learn green finance knowledge; facilitating collaboration across positions; implementing a fair “result-oriented” salary structure; granting rights to subordinate employees who are competent for green investment and financing tasks; and building a job division and operation mechanism with clear responsibilities. Finally, suggestions are put forward to improve the salary system of green bankers, optimize the training system of green financial talents, and use digital management to ensure the independent authority of green investment and financing positions.

THE IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING THE PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCES OF THE STAFF OF SERVICE SECTOR ENTERPRISES

The article deals with the problems of advanced training and development of professional competencies of personnel of service enterprises. The key competencies that the personnel of the enterprise should have are analyzed. The directions of improving communicative competence as the main factor of a modern enterprise in the conditions of fierce competition are considered. The service organization process requires special competencies from the staff, the possession of which ensures in practice a well-coordinated and uninterrupted process of the full functioning of all services, and many of these competencies are invisible to the client, but only as long as the enterprise meets its expectations. The success of a modern enterprise depends on how well employees can meet customer needs. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to determine the level of qualification and types of skills required for a particular position, and train employees to be competent. If the managers of the enterprise are fully competent to perform tasks, then their job satisfaction will increase. The study found that high employee job satisfaction in the workplace can improve the quality of customer service and eliminate such negative factors as long time spent on handling customer complaints, loss of reputation, and low level of employee motivation to work. Also, the article considers the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of training staff. To evaluate the effectiveness of professional development, it is suggested to evaluate not only economic indicators such as labor productivity, income, profit, but also to use evaluation of training programs by managers and employees themselves. Evaluation of the effectiveness of employee training is based on feedback information received from employees who have completed the training. When evaluating training, it is also necessary to evaluate the manager’s satisfaction with the subordinate employee who has completed the training. To achieve professional success, it is necessary to constantly develop. If the company’s personnel does not acquire new knowledge, its competitive advantage will gradually be lost. Continuous training of personnel indicates the achieved success in the field of human resources management and, as a result, increasing the level of their labor potential. Consequently, the development of professional competences of the company’s personnel has a great impact on the quality of customer service and the profitability of the company as a whole.

EVALUASI PROSES PERUBAHAN DENGAN 8 STEP KOTTER (Studi kasus PT PELINDO 1 Tbk)

<p align="justify">The purpose of this research is to see how an organization can increase value by changing the structure, culture and technology. Changes in functional structure can help provide an environment in which people are motivated to act. The fundamental reason organizations need change is because something relevant to the organization has changed, or is about to change. Because of that, the organization had no other choice but to change as well. This change occurred because of encouragement from internal and external companies. The decreased performance of its employees which leads to unsatisfactory service is often a trigger factor for internal organizations to make changes and the external factor is increasingly fierce business competition. This study uses the eight principle methodology in creating change. Change is something that is very difficult to avoid, because change is driven by internal and external organizational forces. Although the environment of an organization is continuously changing, it is necessary to assess changes for the life cycle of the organization. This is related and highly dependent on the form of organization. Change, according to Lewin, occurs because of the emergence of pressures on organizations, individuals or groups. The model invented by Kurt Lewin is an analysis of the power field or the internal and external environment of the organization. Business process automation is becoming an effective way for companies to force change that is irresistible. If the rules are written, even though they have been mutually agreed upon, employees can still work around them. But technology can be coercive effectively and can eventually lead to cultural change. The automation process at Pelindo I was successful because first, it was able to overcome the feeling of awkwardness in the paternalistic culture which is very strong as well as the culture of "kinship" which is very thick in the body of SOEs. Second, being able to motivate employees to always look their best because everything is in the corridor of professionalism. Third, because it is combined with changes in performance management. Performance management is simply productivity. Then the change process that was carried out for the first time in 2004-2014 which was not conducive was caused by the not forming a team that was strong enough to direct the process (building a guiding coalition). And this is what creates resistance also from employees. Then it was not created at the beginning of creating the right vision, but changes have been implemented, meaning that subordinate employees are invited to change without being accompanied by communication of a vision.</p><p><strong>Keywords</strong>: Evaluation, Organization, Step Kotter</p>

Прокурор как участник следственной группы в российском уголовном судопроизводстве: история и современность

Consideration is given to the genesis of the criminal procedural legislation of the Russian state, which regulates the preliminary investigation by the investigation team. It was found that the rules of various sources of criminal procedural law of the Russian state to varying degrees determined the procedural provisions governing the powers of the prosecutor as a party to the criminal procedural legal relations with the investigation team. At the analysis of Statute of criminal legal procedure of 1864 it was revealed that prosecutor was empowered to cooperate with investigation team, in some cases being involved in the composition of the investigation team. The problem of correlation and differentiation of powers of head of investigative body and public prosecutor, including in relation to the investigative group, was considered. In addition, attention was paid to the ratio of such forms of control at the pre-trial stages of criminal proceedings as prosecutorial supervision, judicial control and procedural control. Disadvantages of the last form of control are marked out, as at the analysis of the investigative practice there were revealed problems of interest of heads of investigative bodies in favorable and qualitative indicators of their subordinate employees - investigators, including those involved in the investigative group. The question of registered procedural violations, committed by the officials of preliminary investigation and pre-investigation bodies at the pre-trial stages of criminal proceedings was analyzed, the dynamics of growth of these violations in the period from 2015 to 2020 was confirmed. As a consequence the attention was drawn to the possibility of involvement of the prosecutor to the investigative group at the present stage. Taking into account historical aspects of regulation of processes of organization and activity of investigative groups at different stages of development of domestic criminal justice, dynamics of pro-procedural violations of officials of bodies of preliminary investigation and inquiry, revealed problems of interest and partiality in realization of procedural control over participants of investigative group, the necessity of involving prosecutor into composition of investigative group is grounded.

Human resource management of economically dependent self-employed and subordinate employees

Human resource management of economically dependent self-employed and subordinate employees

Правовое регулирование системы управления конфликтами в Великобритании

The analysis of the legal regulation of conflict resolution in the organisation and the rather effective practice of its application in Great Britain proves the necessity of using foreign experience to improve Russian labour law in this sphere. At the same time, despite the absence of similar regulations in Russia, it is not enough to speak only of the need to develop and implement them to resolve social and labour disputes that have already arisen in the organisation. The concept of conflict management as a strategic goal of the employer for the development of social and labour relations should be introduced. The conflict management system can be a unity of: the employer's conflict management policy; organizational conditions that ensure distribution and implementation of conflict management authority among representatives of the employer; the system of local regulations mediating conflict management in the organization; and conflict management procedures. Conflict management procedures should include both measures to anticipate and prevent disagreements in the course of joint work activities and to resolve and resolve conflicts that have arisen. Preventing the emergence of conflicts involves: 1) creation of a culture of diversity and inclusive environment in the organisation; 2) detailed regulation of business processes with clear distribution of functions between structural units and labour duties between employees occupying relevant positions; 3) distribution of conflict management responsibilities between employer representatives using management levels; 4) procedures for organising and conducting training of officials in conflict management; 5) informing and advising employees on ur. Regulations on the structural subdivisions of the organisation, job descriptions of heads of structural subdivisions should stipulate responsibilities for settlement and resolution of conflicts, including personal interviews with subordinate employees to prevent disagreement, acceptance of applications and complaints, their review and making initial (final) decisions on the complaint, etc. The procedures for resolving and settling conflicts that have arisen should describe the procedure for holding employees liable for labour law violations and handling complaints against the employer, its representatives and other participants in the labour process. The conclusions presented in this article could be used by Russian employers in local rulemaking and organisational, managerial and enforcement practice in the organisation. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

ПОИСК УНИВЕРСАЛЬНЫХ РЕШЕНИЙ В ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ЭФФЕКТИВНОЙ СИСТЕМЫ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ

On the basis of generalization and analysis of existing approaches in the organization of management systems, the author proposes a method of preliminary assessment of the development potential of the enterprise, derived on the basis of the general properties of functioning inherent in all organizations, and also provides a typical scheme of an effective management system. Attention is paid to problematic issues related to the performance by employees of uncharacteristic labor functions. A simple method is proposed by which it is possible to identify an unreasonably expended labor resource and optimize the management system. Universal criteria are considered, using which it is possible to organize the distribution of responsibilities between employees and departments, so that their activities are as efficient and effective as possible. The leading role of employees who are the creators of the main product of the organization is indicated in relation to those who perform the functions of ensuring the production process, including administrative and managerial personnel. In this article, much attention is paid to the issue of the formation of effective labor behavior, the physiological mechanisms of the formation of a behavioral act are revealed. Based on the analysis of the need-information theory of emotions by academician P.V.Simonov, the systematization and description of physiologically conditioned human needs, which are the sources of appropriate behavioral reactions, is carried out. The article describes studies of the formation of a conditioned reflex and the basic principle of the nervous system – the dominant principle, which clearly demonstrate how foci of excitation can be created in the central nervous system, which can subsequently directly affect human behavior, as well as underlie many pathological processes occurring in the body. The author suggests the principles of human impact, the use of which will cause an unconditional reaction from the object of influence. The relationship between the emotional state of an employee and the effectiveness of his labor actions is investigated. The direct dependence of the effectiveness of labor actions carried out by employees on the presence of their positive emotional reinforcement is proved. The mechanism of professional skill formation as the basis of effective labor behavior is revealed. The article identifies cognitive distortions, as well as errors in decision-making that arise in managers in the process of managing subordinate employees, and also reveals the causes of their occurrence. Conclusions are drawn about the necessary qualities of highly qualified managers.

The effect of digital maturity level of workplace on perceived employee well-being as moderated by locus of control

Choices, determined by an employee's locus of control, affect their perceived well-being. But there is a lack of research that shows whether locus of control acts as a direct factor or a moderator. The aim of the research was to determine the effect of the level of digital maturity of the workplace on the perceived well-being of employees as moderated by the locus of control in the banking sector of Lithuania. The analysis and synthesis of scientific literature, as well as information interpretation and generalization were applied in the research. A survey of 232 employees of Lithuanian commercial banks was conducted. Descriptive statistics methods, significance tests, polynomial regression analysis were used for data analysis and formulation of conclusions. We found that locus of control moderates the relationship between employee perceived well-being and the salience of digital tools and the use of digital tools, although the relationship was weak. Employees with the dominance of internal locus of control believe that the importance of digital tools in their work is high and important, compared to the frequency of using these tools. Employees with an external locus of control tend to use digital tools more and feel greater psychological well-being when they use them to complete assigned tasks. Respondents with a high internal locus of control more often occupy high positions in the organisation, have subordinate employees and work with more complex digital tools. They are not concerned with the abundance or frequency of use of tools, but with the necessary functionality and capabilities. Therefore, the perceived psychological well-being of such employees is more influenced by the significance of digital tools.

An empirical study on the impact of employee voice and silence on destructive leadership and organizational culture

This paper is an outcome of the business ethics course conducted during the third semester of the MBA course and aims to examine how a subordinate employee’s response, either by raising a concern or being quiet to repeated misbehavior of the leader, impacts an organization. Primary data was collected from the employees of mid-sized IT companies in India using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. Structural equation modeling has been used to analyze the data. Mediation analysis has been conducted to verify the mediating role of organizational culture. It is found that if an employee feels safe in an environment, they open up to suggestions or else suppress their thoughts to escape repercussion. The analysis shows that silence and voice in an organization have an impact on the organization’s culture. The implications of this study show that leaders violate the integrity of the organization by vandalizing the organization's objectives, outcomes, assets, and well-being of the co-employees. Previous studies have not focused on the mediating role of organizational culture on employee voice or silence.

Predictive analysis of the psychological state of charismatic leaders on employees' work attitudes based on artificial intelligence affective computing.

With the progress of social production, the competition for talents among enterprises is fierce, and the market often lacks capable leaders, which leads to the lack of management of enterprise employees and cannot bring more economic benefits to enterprises. Traditional leaders make subordinate employees work actively and achieve the common goal of the enterprise by exerting their own leadership characteristics and observing their subordinates, but they cannot take care of the psychological state of each employee, resulting in the employee's work efficiency is not very high. In recent years, charismatic leadership has become an important economic leader in the new era, and the theoretical spirit of charismatic leadership can well guide employees to work actively. Artificial intelligence affective computing can well identify the psychological state of the subject, and the combination of artificial intelligence affective computing and charismatic leadership can achieve effective management of employees through the predictive analysis of employees' psychological state. This paper compares the psychological state prediction analysis of employees' work attitudes between charismatic leaders based on artificial intelligence affective computing and traditional leaders through experiments. The results show that: charismatic leaders based on artificial intelligence affective computing predictive analytics can improve sensitivity to employee needs, resulting in an 8.2% increase in employee trust in leadership, a 4.4% increase in employee commitment to achieving organizational goals, and a 19.3% increase in employee job satisfaction. The psychological state prediction analysis of charismatic leaders based on artificial intelligence affective computing on employees' work attitudes can improve the work efficiency of employees and the economic benefits of enterprises.

LEGAL REGULATION OF PART-TIME WORK IN LABOR RELATIONS

This article discusses the issues of legal regulation of part-time work and its types. The legal features of the types of working time analyzed in the article are an urgent subject of research, which is of great importance for the regulation of relations between employer and hired and subordinate employee. The scientific publication analyzes the problems of establishing part-time work. Based on the analysis of the current legislation in the sphere of labor, the author formulates the criteria that allow distinguishing between these types of working time.