Subjects Of Public International Law Research Articles

Subjects of Public International Law and Non-State Actors – Time for Reflection

Subjects of Public International Law and Non-State Actors – Time for Reflection

Recursos externos para a Administração Pública: a contribuição dos novos bancos multilaterais de desenvolvimento

Multilateral development banks are international organizations and, therefore, subjects of Public International Law, aimed at promoting financial cooperation through loans and donations to infrastructure projects, acquisition of goods and services for the Public Administration. The creation of the first banks occurred at the end of World War II, in the context of post-war reconstruction. Brazil has a constitutional and legal framework that allows the use of external resources from multilateral banks, as well as the waiver of domestic legislation for the application of external rules, subject to constitutional and procedural requirements. In the first decades of the 21st century, due to the economic growth of emerging countries and the need for greater representation of their decisions in international organizations, new multilateral banks have been created. These banks are characterized by their more flexible rules, greater possibility to make use of national procurement and contracting rules, use of local currency, and fewer conditionalities. Faced with an international context marked by the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, and high inflation, foreign resources qualify as an alternative to contribute to national public policies, and Brazilian institutions need to qualify themselves to be able to request funding for projects of public interest.

Recursos externos para a administração pública: a contribuição dos novos Bancos Multilaterais de Desenvolvimento

Multilateral development banks are international organizations and, therefore, subjects of Public International Law, aimed at promoting financial cooperation through loans and donations to infrastructure projects, acquisition of goods and services for the Public Administration. The creation of the first banks occurred at the end of World War II, in the context of post-war reconstruction. Brazil has a constitutional and legal framework that allows the use of external resources from multilateral banks, as well as the waiver of domestic legislation for the application of external rules, subject to constitutional and procedural requirements. In the first decades of the 21st century, due to the economic growth of emerging countries and the need for greater representation of their decisions in international organizations, new multilateral banks have been created. These banks are characterized by their more flexible rules, greater possibility to make use of national procurement and contracting rules, use of local currency, and fewer conditionalities. Faced with an international context marked by the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, and high inflation, foreign resources qualify as an alternative to contribute to national public policies, and Brazilian institutions need to qualify themselves to be able to request funding for projects of public interest.

РОЛЬ ЄБРР У КРЕДИТУВАННІ МАЛОГО ТА СЕРЕДНЬОГО БІЗНЕСУ

The most intensive development of international financial and credit legal relations took place in the 20th century. in connection with the consequences of world wars and numerous economic crises. The number of international credit agreements is growing every year, but a comprehensive analysis of them has not yet been conducted in the science of international law. It should be noted that scientific approaches to these issues were formed separately by Soviet and Western scientists. In their research, they took into account the specifics of the political and economic system of their states. Since the collapse of the socialist camp, domestic science of international law has received new approaches to the study of the so-called "international currency law" (as a prototype of modern international financial law), which arose from the combination of the positions of the Soviet and Western schools of international law. However, taking into account the mutually exclusive nature of these studies, their results should be updated and establish how the legal regulation of financial and credit relations is carried out in international public law. These relations are characterized by industry-specific features of subject composition and sources of legal regulation. International credit agreements, in turn, contain relevant special essential conditions. In the process of implementing these relations, scientific disputes often begin about the expediency of including TNCs in the list of subjects of public international law as a whole. Given the fact that Ukraine is an active participant in international financial and credit relations, this topic requires further scientific research. The work examines and systematizes information on the role of the EBRD in lending to small and medium-sized businesses. The purpose of the study is to analyse the role of the EBRD in lending to small and medium-sized businesses. The relevance of the study of this topic in the context of the development of the international economy is determined. Information about the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is provided, and the theoretical foundations of the creation and functioning of the EBRD are considered. The role of the EBRD in lending to small and medium-sized businesses is being studied. An evaluation of the current crediting of the Ukrainian economy by international financial organizations is carried out.

"Digital Nationalism" as the Embodiment of the Chinese Doctrine of the "Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence"

The article focuses on the special public international relations emerging among the subjects of public international law regarding the enforcement of state sovereignty in the conditions of digitalization of the economy and ensuring national interests in the field of security. The subject of the study is the Chinese doctrine of public international law. The author analyzes the legal regulations in the field of digital economy in China. The Chinese model of "digital nationalism" is being analyzed. The state sovereignty over the cyberspace is being embodied through the category of "cyber sovereignty" and the doctrine of "five principles of peaceful coexistence". The state has to implement the policy of "digital nationalism" to ensure its sovereignty. The Chinese theory of public international law is based on the doctrine of the peaceful existence of nations with different political, economic, social and cultural systems, based on a set of five fundamental principles, which facilitate the achievement of common goals while maintaining a balance of national interests. State sovereignty is the crucial point of this doctrine, since peaceful coexistence of nations is achieved through mutual respect for sovereignty. The concept of a "community of common destiny" defines the goal identified by China implementing the five principles of peaceful coexistence. The Chinese approach to the implementation of cyber sovereignty does not imply the "Balkanization" of global cyberspace, on the contrary, it is supposed to maintain the ground for the development of international legal norms in the field of information security. Therefore, the Chinese concept of cyber sovereignty, which is based on "digital nationalism", embodies the logical and expected reaction of national authorities to internal and external security threats. The Chinese theory of public international law is not a scholastic construct, but an objective reality.

Suchasnyi stan vzaiemodii mizhnarodnykh orhanizatsii ta orhaniv derzhavnoi vlady v Ukraini u sferi publichnykh finansiv

In this article states that Ukraine continues to implement active measures to reform public authorities, local governments, energy system, economic climate, law enforcement, social protection systems for vulnerable groups and more. The state aims to form a stable and perfect national financial system, as this is one of the main conditions for the effective development of the national economy and creating the conditions for the well-being of the population. However, the construction of an effective national financial system is impossible without its interaction with the world economy, which is characterized by the process of globalization. In addition, such modernization and reform require significant resources, which are usually lacking in Ukraine. That is why the cooperation of Ukraine with international organizations in the field of public finance comes to the fore. International financial organizations are becoming increasingly important in international economic and financial relations, as their network carries a significant share of global investment, there is a purchase and sale of currency to finance export-import operations, and so on. In addition, given the globalization processes in the world and the needs of developing countries, international financial organizations today play a key role in implementing reforms in major areas of public life, helping to minimize possible crises in national financial systems. Cooperation with international financial organizations is also an integral part of the foreign policy of our state, as well as an activist for the development of financial and economic Ukraine. Such cooperation has an impact on public financial activities, the peculiarities of the formation, distribution and use of monetary resources, as well as the organization of money circulation and financial control. What is meant by «international financial organization»? To address this issue should turn to the achievements of international science. Administrative and financial law. International financial organizations are organizations established under several states that are subjects of public international law and which provide financial resources to member states of international financial organizations on the terms specified in their documents. In the international steam literature, the concept of international financial organizations is also understood as such an organization, which is endowed by its members with competent activities in the monetary and financial sphere and which is more or less involved in the functioning of the international financial system.

Applicability of the rules of international humanitarian law to peacekeeping operations in regional crises

Reading the International Humanitarian Law, point of view of the status of subjects of Public International Law of the parties ist the only issue that involved in military conflicts matters so that they can be qualified as international or non-international, which depends directly on the volume of legal rules to be enforced and complied by the warring parties. Thus, members of peacekeeping operations conducted under the auspices of the UN, or with the participation of regional structures must strictly comply with the provisions of the rules of war throughout their actions in situations that may qualify as armed conflicts. Mechanisms and instruments for ensuring compliance with the rules of International Humanitarian Law by members of peacekeeping contingents shall be the subject of research in this article.

Роль топологічної двоконтурної моделі ноосфери в дослідженні процесів правової глобалізації

Виступаючи найважливішою складовою загального процесу глобалізації, що базується на різноманітті ноосфери, правова глобалізація справляє суттєвий вплив на розвиток природничих, суспільних і, звичайно ж, філософських наук, і хоча вона всього лише є проявом однієї з безлічі соціогенних функцій ноосфери, вона, своєю чергою, сама по собі здатна надавати домінантний вплив на динаміку процесу глобалізації в цілому. Отже, якщо глобалізація як системна інтеграція цивілізаційних процесів в ноосфері, за своїм завершенням, неминуче повинна привести все інституційні структури, що функціонують на базі різноманіття ноосфери до уніфікації, то згідно з ученням про ноосферу, правова глобалізація, як одна з форм планетарної – розумової і творчої діяльності людини, – це потужний інформаційно-правовий фактор соціогенної природи. Вона активно впливає на еволюцію ноосфери (планети в цілому) на глобальному, регіональному і локальному рівнях її просторової і речової системної організації. Саме тому не викликає здивування, що в процесі соціогенезу в ноосферу, відповідно до явища зворотного зв’язку в складних системах, правова глобалізація детермінує політичну, економічну, культурну та інші види і форми глобалізації. В цьому проявляється самоорганізація процесів у ноосфері як в природній динамічній системі. В основі механізму самоорганізації знаходиться зворотний зв’язок об’єкта управління з суб’єктом управління (ефект зворотного зв’язку – «feed back»), що, як правило, при негативному зворотному зв’язку забезпечує стійкість системи. Однак явище позитивного зворотного зв’язку в ноосфері може викликати лавиноподібний катастрофічний ефект, наслідком якого буде порушення процесу її сталого розвитку та, навіть, руйнування екосоціального фундаменту ноосфери. Тому важливим видається дослідження ролі топологічної двоконтурної моделі ноосфери, яка: а) виникає в процесі геополітичного аналізу концепції ноосфери як цілісної системи; б) у термінах геометрії і топології (відповідно до теорії подібності) має природну двоконтурну – «оболонково-ядерну» структуру, розділену симплексом еквіпотенціальної поверхні; в) відображає фундаментальні ознаки та глибинні властивості об’єкта, його глобальні й локальні просторові характеристики, особливості взаємодії з навколишнім середовищем у дослідженні процесів правової глобалізації.
 Метою статті є визначення ролі топологічної двоконтурної моделі ноосфери в дослідженні процесів правової глобалізації.
 Наукова новизна полягає у дослідженні факторів, що сприяють формуванню, функціонуванню та виокремленню топологічної двоконтурної моделі ноосфери в контекстуалізації процесів правової глобалізації.
 Висновки. Дослідження процесів формування, функціонування та виокремлення топологічної двоконтурної моделі ноосфери в контекстуалізації процесів правової глобалізації може виявитися перспективним та конструктивним напрямом в умовах загальної глобалізації для використання в моніторингу глибинних процесів правової глобалізації, а саме – еволюції системи міжнародного публічного права, досліджень в області конвергенції правових систем і конституційної політичної економіки суб’єктів міжнародного публічного права, а також міжнародно-правового прогнозування та розроблення правових методів попереджувального управління процесами в ноосфері.

Controversies Regarding the Status of the Natural Person in International Public Law

International public law is, by its very nature, an area of controversy. Some are more easily resolved, others seem, at least for the moment, to be unresolved to such a manner that all divergent opinions could be reconciled. And the issue to be addressed has stirred up strong controversies and complex arguments, both on one side of the barricade and on the other. The question remains without an unanimous answer, and the literature presents us with several opinions. Is the natural person a subject of public international law or not? The controversial subjects of public international law are the natural persons, the legal persons and the non-governmental organizations. The literature calls them limited and subsidiary subjects of international public law. The old international public law recognizes only the state as its subject. In the evolution of international relations, however, a series of regulations regarding the natural persons appeared, which made it possible for them to become subjects of international law. The debate over this issue developed especially in the 1920s, after the creation of the Permanent Court of International Justice and later, after the Second World War, and at present new arguments have been added.

SUJEITOS DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL PÚBLICO: UM PROCESSO EVOLUTIVO DE RECONHECIMENTO

O presente artigo tem como objetivo principal tratar do processo de reconhecimento dos sujeitos de direito internacional público. É sabido que por suas próprias características, o Estado é, por excelência, sujeito originário do direito internacional público. Porém, a partir do século XX, organizações internacionais passam a contracenar com o Estado, para fins de se atingir a finalidade para a qual a Organização das Nações Unidas fora criada em 1945, no Pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial. Estes, em conjunto, formam atualmente os chamados sujeitos de direito internacional público, porquanto criam direitos e obrigações na ordem internacional. Porém, o Direito Internacional em sentido lato, como em qualquer outro ramo do Direito, acompanha o processo evolutivo da sociedade e, portanto, não se pode querer restringir o alcance ou os destinatários das leis internacionais. Neste contexto, sob uma perspectiva bibliográfica doméstica e internacional, como também jurisprudencial, utilizando-se do método dedutivo de pesquisa, perquirir-se-á neste artigo somente acerca do processo evolutivo de reconhecimento dos sujeitos de direito internacional público.

Interregional Organizations (IROs) in Europe: New Subjects

Interregional organizations appeared in international relations and consequently in international law quite recently. The development of technology in the previous decades enabled not only the public and private law subjects including individuals from different States to co-operate directly across the States’ borders, but in the same time it led to the enlargement of the scope of international issues that central governments have been faced with. This situation has resulted in the co-operation on the sub-State, i.e. inter-regional level i.e. between regions and other sub-State entities from different States. Such a process resulted in creation of numerous interrregional organizations, particularly in Europe. Nowadays, these organizations already participate in international legal relations with States and other subjects of public international law. For these reasons, the topic of this paper is an analysis of some aspects of international legal personality that might be achieved by these organizations.

Interregional Organizations (IROs) in Europe: New Subjects

Interregional organizations appeared in international relations and consequently in international law quite recently. The development of technology in the previous decades enabled not only the public and private law subjects including individuals from different States to co-operate directly across the States’ borders, but in the same time it led to the enlargement of the scope of international issues that central governments have been faced with. This situation has resulted in the co-operation on the sub-State, i.e. inter-regional level i.e. between regions and other sub-State entities from different States. Such a process resulted in creation of numerous interrregional organizations, particularly in Europe. Nowadays, these organizations already participate in international legal relations with States and other subjects of public international law. For these reasons, the topic of this paper is an analysis of some aspects of international legal personality that might be achieved by these organizations.

International Legal Regulation of Trans-border Co-operation

Trans-border co-operation is regulated in a special way, because it includes not only States, but also parts of States, such as the subjects of federations, regions etc. These relations are regulated by international treaties (bilateral and multi-lateral), by agreements between local authorities and acts of formation specially created for this co-operation. The process of trans-border co-operation is more actively developing in Europe, where special entities—“Euroregions”—are being created, and a network of different agreements has been concluded for the regulation of this kind of co-operation. Non-sovereign participants of trans-border co-operation are not subjects of public international law and their agreements are transnational administrative agreements.

The Human Right to Water and Sanitation: Going Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility

Traditionally, it has been understood that private corporations cannot be held responsible for human rights violations at the international level. Only States, main subjects of public international law, can be held legally responsible for human rights violations. Today, this classical argument is being increasingly challenged by the force of reality. States remain the entity that is principally responsible for human rights violations, but there is no epistemological reason for denying such responsibility in the case of private corporations at the international level. The increasing number of standards and mechanisms at the regional and international level addressed to enterprises, that enshrine environmental and human rights standards contribute to build this argument. There is a tangible trend that goes beyond corporate social responsibility towards the initial steps of the emergence of international corporate human rights responsibility.

Protection of Minority Rights in the EU System

Minority rights protection system was developed as a reaction to the persecution of this group throughout history and can be revealed as a number of factors, legislations and institutional mechanisms that are interdependent and constantly evolving. In other words, 'creating the international system of protection of minority rights is an expression of the will to shield trends of persecution or repression of national minorities'. Therefore, national minorities are a special group requiring particular protection measures which have been taken in the activity of international organizations. International organizations have demonstrated their important role in the system of international relations especially in economic, social, and the protection of human rights field. They are not only instruments of cooperation between states, but also tools used to raise awareness on the realities of a globalizing world. International organizations have an internal legal personality, but also an international one, and their capacity as subjects of public international law is recognized by the doctrine and by international treaties.

Protection of National Minorities Rights into the League of Nations and the UN System

In light of recent conflicts on issue of minorities and European regulations, issue of protection of rights appears to be increasingly more important in a world of multiculturalism, which should be a world of dialogue and respect of human rights as well. The lack of a universally accepted definition of term minority (both in literature and in legally binding texts) doesn’t make protection of rights of this category impossible, also because the existence of a is a matter of fact and not of definition” said van der Stoel (1993-2001) in his opening speech at OSCE seminar on minorities held in 1994, in Warsaw.Minority rights protection system was developed as a reaction to persecution of this group throughout history and is revealed as an ensemble of elements in interdependence and constantly evolving. In other words, creating international system of protection of rights is an expression of will to shield trends of persecution or repression of national minorities. Thus, national minorities are a special group requiring particular protection measures which have been taken in activity of international organizations. International organizations have demonstrated their important role in system of international relations especially in economic, social, and protection of human rights field. They are not only instruments of cooperation between states, but also tools used to raise awareness on realities of a globalizing world. International organizations have an internal legal personality, but also an international one, and their role as subjects of public international law is recognized both by doctrine and by international treaties.Next we highlighted main features, sources and mechanisms of League of Nations system and of UN system. In close connection, they determine, in part, international legal framework of protection of rights.

The Subjects of Public International Law in a Globalized World

Today we are witnessing a fundamental shift in Public International Law (PIL) in which the number of actors increases dramatically and in which communication means power. The matrix of PIL is undergoing a major change. This change is not abrupt but has to be seen in the context of the shift away from the Westphalian model of PIL since 1945. Also, globalization is not a new phenomenon, although the current era of globalization, which was made possible due to the fall of the iron curtain and recent technological developments, raises the question how to describe the emerging international legal community in terms of international legal theory. As the importance of the role of the state as an actor of international law is reduced (albeit not to a degree that the state would lose its de facto primacy among the subjects of international law), other actors are gaining ground, in particular international organizations, transnational corporations, NGOs and individuals.

Grotius's Mare Liberum in the Political Practice of Early-Modern Europe

AbstractIn this article Mare liberum is placed within the context of seventeenth-century European politics. It focuses on the development of conventional relations between European States regarding their interests outside of Europe and their importance concerning the status of Asian and African 'actors'. It turns out that in spite of Mare liberum's high-sounding proclamation of equality of non-European sovereigns with European States, Grotius's position as well as Dutch policy was inspired by self-interest and was essentially opportunistic. The Dutch Republic – as well as other European States – used the 'liberal' principles of Freedom of trade and the Universality of the Law of Nations to attack the Portuguese/Spanish claims of monopoly. However, as the Dutch Republic, Great Britain and France developed their own 'Spheres of Interest' in Asia, Africa and the Americas, they effectively excluded would-be competitors. Indeed, in the eighteenth century the 'pacte colonial' constituted a distinctive characteristic of the conventional and customary 'European Law of Nations'. As non-European political actors in the eighteenth century relatively lost military and political power, the European States finally relegated them to an inferior position, beyond the charmed circle of full 'subjects of Public International Law'. The article also is a contribution to the ongoing discussion about the relation between European imperialism and the development of the doctrine of European International Law.

Female Subjects of International Human Rights Law: The Hijab1Debate and the Exotic Other Female2

In this paper, the presupposed ideas upon which the hijab is probibited in both France and Turkey – concerning the nature and purpose of veiling (these notions informed and influenced by a long history of Orientalism) – are examined and shown to provide an insufficient justification for the prohibition. Such notions serve to marginalize Muslim Women in the broader women's rights movement in international human rights law, thereby engendering and maintaining the ‘otherness’ of the Muslim woman as the ‘Exotic Female Other’. Having considered how the rhetoric surrounding Muslim women, the veil and the prohibition are easily challenged and therefore significantly undermine the ban's validity, the international law implications of the hijab ban are addressed – namely, the particular human rights that are violated are outlined in addition to a survey of the current effectiveness of international human rights discourse and institutions. Recommendations as to what should be done are also offered. 1 A veil or headscarf worn by Muslim women. 2 For this title, I am indebted to the paper by K. Engle, ‘Female Subjects of Public International Law: Human Rights and the Exotic Other Female', New England Law Review, 26 (1992), pp. 1509–1526.

Responsibility of States for Damages Caused in their Territory to the Person or Property of Foreigners

From time to time since the middle of the nineteenth century various efforts have been made to codify international law. Most of these have dealt with administrative and international private law (the conflict of laws) and more particularly with the laws of war and neutrality. Some of these efforts, particularly those of jurists of the Western Hemisphere, have, included in their scope the whole field of public and private international law. It was, however, left for the League of Nations to launch upon a world-wide effort to place in code form those rules which are regarded as the body of law on three important subjects of public international law. These efforts culminated in the Codification Conference held at The Hague from March 13 to April 12, inclusive, 1930. The three subjects before that Conference were Nationality, Territorial Waters, and Responsibility of States for Damage Caused in Their Territory to the Person or Property of Foreigners.