Subepithelial Glands Research Articles

A histochemical and morphological study of the mucus producing pedal gland system in Latia neritoides (Mollusca; Gastropoda; Hygrophila)

The freshwater gastropod Latia neritoides is endemic to the streams of New Zealand’s North Island. This species has evolved a unique defence system: it exudes a luminescent mucus thought to deter predators. While the bioluminescence itself has been investigated before, the underlying gland system has remained unstudied and relevant information to understand the defence system has been missing till now. For the release of the glowing mucus of L. neritoides two places of origin were assumed: the lateral foot area or the mantel cavity. In this study the focus was on the first suggestion. To gain insight into the defence system, morphological as well as histochemical analyses were performed involving all secretory gland types in the sub-epithelial foot layer. The results were compared with the foot gland system of Neritina sp., a snail living in a comparable habitat, but using a different survival strategy. The gland types of the two gastropods were compared and their mucus types were investigated. Seven subepithelial gland cell types can be distinguished in the foot region of L. neritoides. Neritina sp., in contrast, has six gland cell types of which three laterally located ones are epithelial. Both species show a pedal gland in the anterior foot region. A striking difference between the species are two prominent subepithelial gland cell types (L1l/L2l) in the lateral foot area of L. neritoides, which are missing in Neritina sp. These gland cells are distributed throughout the entire lateral foot area of L. neritoides and make up about 85% of the mucus gland cells in this area. Defence mucus and trail mucus of L. neritoides show different specificities in lectin staining, but are not equally represented in the gland cell types. Yet, based on the huge size and high density of L1l and L2L, we envision a role for these gland types in the defence system.

Management options for primary umbilical endometriosis: a case report

Background: The common location of Endometriosis is in genitalia organs, for instance, the ovary, uterus, fallopian tube, and sometimes even in the intestine, bladder, and in rare locations such as the navel, lungs, or brain. Umbilical Endometriosis is the most irregular form of Endometriosis and the most common cutaneous form of Endometriosis. Primary umbilical endometriosis diagnosis is often biased and delayed; the exact etiopathology remains unclear. Our case report discusses the diagnosis and management options for this rare disease. Case presentation: We reported a Primary Umbilical Endometriosis case, confirmed by a history of the nodule with pain, swelling, and bleeding at the umbilicus, which occurs during menstruation. The nodule was surgically removed, and histopathological analysis shows fibromycsoid tissue with multiple forms of subepithelial endometrial glands and surrounding stroma, confirmed as Endometriosis. Conclusion: The definitive treatment for umbilical Endometriosis is surgical excision with total removal of the umbilicus. The prognosis is good, and the recurrence rate is meager if complete excision is successfully performed.

Comparative Morphohistological Study of Pancreatic Ducts in Rabbits and Guinea Pigs

The study aims to determine the morphology and histology of the duct system in pancreases ofrabbits and guinea pigs as two important experimental models in diverse medical investigations. To perform this aim, eight adult animals of each species have been collected and used. Animals were euthanized and subsequent dissection was implemented to cut and collect the pancreases. Samples from these organs were fixed by using 10% neutral buffered formalin which then processed routinely to prepare sections stained by either hematoxylin-eosin or Masson’s trichrome stains. Gross findings of the rabbit pancreas revealed an absence of major pancreatic duct and the persistence of only minor pancreatic duct as well as an accessory small pancreatic duct, whereas, in guinea pigs, the only minor pancreatic duct was detected. Microscopically, similar branched ducts were found but with some differences between the two species. In both, it was started with centroacinar cells, then connected to intercalated ducts that were lined with cuboidal cells (in the guinea pig, ducts were surrounded with myoepithelial cells). The latter converged to form interlobular ducts lined with columnar cells (in guinea pig, ducts showed goblet cells and subepithelial mucous glands). The larger interlobular ducts were converged to form a minor pancreatic duct that was lined with tall columnar epithelium with goblet cells surrounded by connective tissue (in guinea pigs, also mucous glands were found invested in the surrounding fibrous tissue with the presence of circularly arranged smooth muscle fibers).

Ultrastructure and histochemistry of the subepithelial glands of the nasal septal island in dromedaries with special reference to the possible functions.

The nasal septal island (NSI) is a sensory patch of neuroepithelium located within the soft tissue of the nasal septum in dromedaries. The island has unique anatomical features, including the specialized subepithelial glands. The aim of the present study was to describe the microscopic features and ultrastructure of these subepithelial glands and to speculate the possible functions. A total of 10 camel heads were used for the study. Unlike the serous and mucous airway glands, the NSI glands' ultrastructural features were typical for cells of the (Amine Precursor Uptake and Decarboxylation, APUD) system. These features were included, membrane bound secretory vesicles of varying electron density, smooth endoplasmic reticulum in the form of vesicles; electron dense mitochondria, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes. Alcian-PAS identifiable mucus granules were not observed, except for few clusters of cells, located at the luminal surface. The probable functions were discussed on basis of cellular morphology and context. In a conclusion, the NSI subepithelial glands in dromedaries had unique anatomical structures, and as many other APUD cells, they had the machinery required for synthesis of a variable number of biologically active peptides, amines and chemical mediators.

Role for Mucin-5AC in Upper and Lower Airway Pathogenesis in Mice.

Mucin-5AC (MUC5AC) is a major secreted mucin in pathogenic airways. To determine its role in mucus-related airway disorders, Muc5ac-deficient (Muc5ac-/-) and wild-type (Muc5ac+/+) mice were compared in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease, and ozone toxicity. Significantly greater inflammation and fibrosis by bleomycin were developed in Muc5ac-/- lungs compared to Muc5ac+/+ lungs. More severe mucous cell metaplasia in fibrotic Muc5ac-/- lungs coincided with bronchial Muc2, Muc4, and Muc5b overexpression. Airway RSV replication was higher in Muc5ac-/- than in Muc5ac+/+ during early infection. RSV-caused pulmonary epithelial death, bronchial smooth muscle thickening, and syncytia formation were more severe in Muc5ac-/- compared to Muc5ac+/+. Nasal septal damage and subepithelial mucoserous gland enrichment by RSV were greater in Muc5ac-/- than in Muc5ac+/+. Ozone exposure developed more severe nasal airway injury accompanying submucosal gland hyperplasia and pulmonary proliferation in Muc5ac-/- than in Muc5ac+/+. Ozone caused periodic acid-Schiff-positive secretion only in Muc5ac-/- nasal airways. Lung E-cadherin level was relatively lower in Muc5ac-/- than in Muc5ac+/+ basally and after bleomycin, RSV, and ozone exposure. Results indicate that MUC5AC is an essential mucosal component in acute phase airway injury protection. Subepithelial gland hyperplasia and adaptive increase of other epithelial mucins may compensate airway defense in Muc5ac-/- mice.

Distinct Patterns of Tissue Remodeling and Their Prognostic Role in Chronic Rhinosinusitis

Introduction: Tissue remodeling refers to structural changes that occur in damaged tissue and is associated with disease severity in asthma. However, the characteristics of tissue remodeling and its prognostic role in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) remain unclear. In this report, we evaluated the clinical implications of tissue remodeling in CRS. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of adult patients who underwent endoscopic sinus surgery for bilateral CRS. The histopathology of sinus mucosa was determined by evaluating the inflammatory cell count and tissue remodeling markers (squamous metaplasia, subepithelial gland proliferation, basement membrane [BM] thickening, stromal edema, and fibrosis). Eosinophilic CRS (ECRS) was defined as an eosinophil count >15/high-power field in the biopsied tissue. Patient characteristics, allergy test grade, preoperative Lund-Mackay score (LMS), and pre- and postoperative Lund-Kennedy scores (LKSs) were analyzed. Results: Of the identified patients, 59.1% were classified as ECRS and the remaining 40.9% as non-ECRS. Regarding tissue remodeling markers, stromal edema was seen in 90.9%, BM thickening in 63.6%, and stromal fibrosis in 34.1% of patients. In cases with stromal edema and BM thickening, greater tissue eosinophilia was observed, while stromal fibrosis decreased tissue eosinophilia (p < 0.05). Prognostically, subepithelial gland proliferation alone was an independent risk factor for poor postoperative endoscopic findings (odds ratio: 8.250, 95% confidence interval: 1.128–60.319, p = 0.038). Conclusions: Tissue eosinophilia was commonly associated with BM thickening and stromal edema. Subepithelial gland proliferation predicted a poor surgical prognosis in CRS. These findings imply that tissue remodeling provides additional information not only on the CRS endotype but also on the postsurgical prognosis.

Adding myofibroblasts to the lacrimal pump

The lacrimal sac (LS) empties in the nasolacrimal duct to drain the tears in the inferior nasal meatus. Different studies indicated the role of the lacrimal pump in the lacrimal drainage. Although controversial, the lacrimal pump mechanism is an extrinsic one, either active, or passive. An intrinsic contractile potential of the LS was not documented previously. We thus aimed a retrospective immunohistochemical study to test the alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and h-caldesmon expression in the LS wall. We used archived paraffin-embedded samples of LS from ten adult patients. The α-SMA + phenotype was detected in basal epithelial cells, in subepithelial ribbons of stromal cells, in vascular smooth muscle cells, as well as in pericytes. H-caldesmon was exclusively expressed in pericytes, vascular smooth muscle cells and myoepithelial cells of the subepithelial glands. The most striking feature we found in all samples was a consistent stromal network of α-SMA+/h-caldesmon- myofibroblasts. This finding supports an intrinsic scaffold useful for the lacrimal pump.

Differential Expression of Mucins in Murine Olfactory Versus Respiratory Epithelium.

N/A (Basic Science Research).IACUC-approved study [Protocol 200065].

Pathologic features and expression of heat shock protein 47 in the nasal mucosa and lacrimal sac: does it influence the surgical outcome of endoscopic endonasal dacryocystorhinostomy?

To correlate the pathologic features and heat shock protein 47 (HSP47) expression in the nasal mucosa and lacrimal sac with the surgical outcomes of endoscopic endonasal dacryocystorhinostomy (EDCR). Specimens of the nasal mucosa and lacrimal sac over the rhinostomy site were collected during the operation. Haematoxylin-eosin and immunohistochemical staining were performed to determine the pathologic features (inflammation, fibrosis, squamous metaplasia) and the expression of HSP47 in the epithelium and sub-epithelial glands of the nasal mucosa and lacrimal sac. The success or failure of EDCR was determined 6 months after surgery. A total of 30 patients (30 eyes) were included in this study. Inflammation and squamous metaplasia of the nasal mucosa were not associated with the surgical outcome of EDCR (p = 0.485 and 0.069, respectively), but there was an association with fibrosis of the nasal mucosa (p = 0.003). In addition, HSP47 in the nasal mucosa was associated with the surgical outcomes (p = 0.005). Inflammation of the lacrimal sac was not associated with the surgical outcome of EDCR (p = 0.509), but fibrosis and squamous metaplasia of the lacrimal sac were (p = 0.005 and 0.008, respectively). Additionally, HSP47 in the lacrimal sac was associated with surgical outcomes (p < 0.001). Fibrosis and squamous metaplasia of the nasal mucosa and lacrimal sac lowered the success rate of EDCR. HSP47 also lowered the surgical success rate. Fibrosis was correlated with the expression of HSP47.

Intradural Extramedullary Bronchogenic Cyst: Clinical and Radiologic Characteristics, Surgical Outcomes, and Literature Review.

An intradural extramedullary bronchogenic cyst (IEBC) is a congenital malformation and an extremely rare type of endodermal cyst. This study aims to report the clinical and radiologic characteristics and surgical outcomes of IEBCs and to review the available literature. The medical records of 6 patients (3 female) with pathologically confirmed bronchogenic cysts involving the spinal cord between 2009 and 2016 were retrospectively reviewed, and follow-up evaluations were performed. Of the 6 symptomatic lesions, 4 were located in the cervical vertebra, 1 at the lumbar vertebra, and the remaining 1 at the craniocervical junction. Radiographs showed signals similar to cerebral spinal fluid on all magnetic resonance imaging sequences without contrast enhancement. Total resection was achieved in 3 patients. Histopathology revealed simple and pseudostratified respiratory epithelium with benign subepithelial mucous glands and fat components neighboring the cyst. After a mean follow-up duration of 49.2 months, 2 asymptomatic residual lesions regrew after nontotal resection. In previous literature including 19 cases, most IEBCs (84.2%) tended to be homogeneous and well demarcated on radiologic images, and 85.7% were not contrast enhancing. Cervical or upper thoracic segments were predilection sites with intradural extramedullary localization. The majority of IEBCs had similar benign histological features. The recurrence rate was 15.4% after nontotal resection but nil after total resection. IEBCs displayed an indolent course, and the most effective management with positive outcomes was total resection. Nontotal resection, cystic fenestration, and biopsy, which were associated with recurrence, should be avoided.

Obstructive sleep apnea and rhonchopathy are associated with downregulation of trefoil factor family peptide 3 (TFF3)-Implications of changes in oral mucus composition.

Study objectivesTrefoil factor family (TFF) peptides belong to the family of mucin-associated peptides and are expressed in most mucosal surfaces. TFF peptides carry out functions such as proliferation and migration enhancement, anti-apoptosis, and wound healing. Moreover, TFFs are associated with mucins and interact with them as “linker peptides”, thereby influencing mucus viscosity.To test the hypothesis that in rhonchopathy and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) changes occur in the expression of TFF3 and -2 that could contribute to changes in mucus viscosity, leading to an increase in upper airway resistance during breathing.MethodsRT-PCR, Western-blot, immunohistochemistry and ELISA were performed to detect and quantify TFF3 and -2 in uvula samples. In addition, 99 saliva samples from patients with mild, moderate or severe OSA, as well as samples from rhonchopathy patients and from healthy volunteers, were analyzed by ELISA.ResultsTFF3 was detected in all uvula samples. Immunohistochemistry revealed a subjectively decreasing antibody reactivity of the uvula epithelia with increasing disease severity. ELISA demonstrated significantly higher TFF3 saliva protein concentrations in the healthy control group compared to cases with rhonchopathy and OSA. Predisposing factors of OSA such as BMI or age showed no correlation with TFF3. No significant changes were observed with regard to TFF2.ConclusionsThe results suggest the involvement of TFF3 in the pathogenesis of rhonchopathy and OSA and lead to the hypothesis that reduction of TFF3 production by the epithelium and subepithelial mucous glands of the uvula contribute to an increase in breathing resistance due to a change in mucus organization.

Molecular characterization and functional analysis of a salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis, Krøyer 1838) heme peroxidase with a potential role in extracellular matrixes

Heme peroxidases are the most abundant type of peroxidase catalyzing a H2O2-dependent oxidation of a wide variety of substrates. They are involved in numerous processes like the innate immune response, hormone and prostaglandin synthesis and crosslinking of proteins within extracellular matrixes (ECM) as well as molecules within the cuticle and chorion of arthropods and nematodes. In the present study, a Lepeophtheirus salmonis heme peroxidase (LsHPX) 1 was characterized. Amino acids in the active site of heme peroxidases were conserved, and the predicted protein sequence showed the highest similarity to genes annotated as chorion peroxidases and genes suggested to be involved in cuticle hardening or adhesion. LsHPX1 exhibited a dynamic expression during ontogenesis and during the nauplius molting cycle. Transcripts were localized to muscle cells near the muscle-tendon junction, in nerve tissue especially at neuromuscular junctions, subcuticular epithelium, subepithelial cells facing the hemolymph, exocrine glands within the subepithelial tissue and in isolated cells within the testis. Knock-down of LsHPX1 in nauplius larvae decreased the swimming activity of emerging copepodids. Histological analysis of knock-down animals revealed increased spacing between myofibers and changes in subepithelial and exocrine gland tissue. Considering these results, the potential role of LsHPX1 in crosslinking molecules of salmon louse ECMs is discussed.

Aquaporin expression in the lacrimal sac of patients with primary and functional nasolacrimal duct obstruction

PurposeTo compare the expression profile of aquaporins (AQPs), a family of membrane proteins that function as selective pores in the epithelium of the lacrimal sac in patients with primary or...

Spatial compartmentalization of free radical formation and mitochondrial heterogeneity in bivalve gills revealed by live-imaging techniques

BackgroundReactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (RNS) species are produced during normal unstressed metabolic activity in aerobic tissues. Most analytical work uses tissue homogenates, and lacks spatial information on the tissue specific sites of actual ROS formation. Live-imaging techniques (LIT) utilize target-specific fluorescent dyes to visualize biochemical processes at cellular level.ResultsTogether with oxidative stress measurements, here we report application of LIT to bivalve gills for ex-vivo analysis of gill physiology and mapping of ROS and RNS formation in the living tissue. Our results indicate that a) mitochondria located in the basal parts of the epithelial cells close to the blood vessels are hyperpolarized with high Δψm, whereas b) the peripheral mitochondria close to the cilia have low (depolarized) Δψm. These mitochondria are densely packed (mitotracker Deep Red 633 staining), have acidic pH (Ageladine-A) and collocate with high formation of nitric oxide (DAF-2DA staining). NO formation is also observed in the endothelial cells surrounding the filament blood sinus. ROS (namely H2O2, HOO• and ONOO− radicals, assessed through C-H2DFFDA staining) are mainly formed within the blood sinus of the filaments and are likely to be produced by hemocytes as defense against invading pathogens. On the ventral bend of the gills, subepithelial mucus glands contain large mucous vacuoles showing higher fluorescence intensities for O2•- than the rest of the tissue. Whether this O2•- production is instrumental to mucus formation or serves antimicrobial protection of the gill surface is unknown. Cells of the ventral bends contain the superoxide forming mucocytes and show significantly higher protein carbonyl formation than the rest of the gill tissue.ConclusionsIn summary, ROS and RNS formation is highly compartmentalized in bivalve gills under unstressed conditions. The main mechanisms are the differentiation of mitochondria membrane potential and basal ROS formation in inner and outer filament layers, as well as potentially antimicrobial ROS formation in the central blood vessel. Our results provide new insight into this subject and highlight the fact that studying ROS formation in tissue homogenates may not be adequate to understand the underlying mechanism in complex tissues.

Clinical and laboratory studies of the fate of intranasal allergen.

BackgroundThe precise way in which allergen is handled by the nose is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine recovery of Der p 1 allergen following nasal administration and to determine whether Der p 1 can be detected in nasal biopsies after natural exposure and nasal challenge to allergen.Methods(1) 20 nonatopic non-rhinitics were challenged with Der p 1 and recovery was measured by ELISA in the nasal wash, nasal mucus and induced sputum up to 30 minutes. Particulate charcoal (<40 μm) served as control. (2) In 8 subjects (5 atopics), 30 to 60 minutes after challenge histological localisation of Der p 1 in the nasal mucosal epithelium, subepithelial mucous glands and lamina propria was performed. Co-localisation of Der p 1 with macrophages and IgE-positive cells was undertaken.Results(1) Less than 25% of total allergen was retrievable after aqueous or particulate challenge, most from the nasal mucus during 1-5 min after the challenge. The median of carbon particles recovered was 9%. (2) Prechallenge Der p 1 staining was associated with the epithelium and subepithelial mucous glands. After challenge there was a trend for greater Der p 1 deposition in atopics, but both atopics and nonatopics showed increases in the number of Der p 1 stained cells and stained tissue compartments. In atopics, increased eosinophils, macrophages and IgE positive cells co-localized with Der p 1 staining.ConclusionsDer p 1 allergen is detected in nasal tissue independent of atopic status after natural exposure. After challenge the nose effectively retains allergen, which remains mucosally associated; in atopics there is greater Der p 1 deposition and inflammatory response than in nonatopics. These results support the hypothesis that nasal mucus and tissue act as a reservoir for the inhaled Der p 1 allergen leading to a persistent allergic inflammatory response in susceptible individuals.

Role of Mucin 5ac in Murine Airways

Mucin is a highly glycosylated protein in epithelial lining of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and reproductive tracts. To determine the role of Muc5ac, the major secreted airway mucin, in respiratory pathogenesis, Muc5ac‐deficient mice (Muc5ac‐/‐), generated by deletion of exons 21‐31 encoding the glycosylation region, and wild type controls (Muc5ac+/+) were examined in models of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease (intranasal infection, 106 plaque forming unit RSV/mouse) and pulmonary fibrosis (intratracheal instillation, 0.5 U bleomycin/Kg body weight). Phenotypes were assessed by histopathologic and bronchoalveolar lavage analyses. Reduced levels of intraepithelial mucus from nasal to bronchial airways, atrophic maxilloturbinates, and enriched nasal glands were manifest in Muc5ac‐/‐, compared to Muc5ac+/+. In Muc5ac‐/‐, RSV caused more severe nasal airway injuries including subepithelial congestion and gland secretion and compensatory increase of mucus secretion than in Muc5ac+/+ at 1‐5 d post‐infection. Bronchoepithelial injury and hyperplasia/hyperproliferation as well as pulmonary perivascular‐peribronchiolar edema and smooth muscle thickening were more evident in Muc5ac‐/‐ relative to Muc5ac+/+ at 1‐5 d post‐infection. Serum IgE level was also significantly higher in Muc5ac‐/‐ than in Muc5ac+/+ at 5 d after infection. Muc5ac‐/‐ exhibited significantly more severe pulmonary inflammation than Muc5ac+/+ at 7‐14 d post‐bleomycin. Overall, lack of epithelial barrier component Muc5ac impaired the airway defense against virus and fibrogen, and caused compensatory regulation of other secretory proteins. Supported by the NIEHS Intramural Program.

Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy study on microstructure of gallbladder mucosa in pig.

The present light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies on porcine gallbladder mucosa provide a description of the microstructures of great functional importance such as mucosal folds, the epithelium, glands, and lymphatic nodules. The results showed the regional structural differences of the porcine gallbladder wall. Depending on the part of the gallbladder, three types of mucosal structures were described: simple and branched folds and mucosal crypts. An important structural feature found in the mucosa is connected with the structural variety of type of mucosal folds, which change from simple located in the neck, to most composed, i.e., branched or joined, in the polygonal crypts toward the fundus of the gallbladder. The morphometric analysis showed statistically significantly differences in the form and size of the folds and between the fundus, body, and neck of the gallbladder. Differences in the size of mucosal epithelium are discussed in terms of processes of synthesis and secretion of glycoproteins. Regional, species-specific differences in morphology of mucosal subepithelial glands, i.e., their secretory units and openings, and intensity of mucus secretion were described. Our results on the pig gallbladder show adaptation and/or specialization in particular areas of the mucosa for (1) secretion of mucus in the neck or body of gallbladder and (2) for cyclic volume changes, especially in the fundus of gallbladder. The description of the microstructures of mucosa in the porcine gallbladder could be useful as reference data for numerous experiments on the bile tract in the pig.

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in activated eosinophils is associated with mucosal remodeling in nasal polyps.

Nasal polyposis (NP) is characterized by chronic mucosal inflammation with infiltrating eosinophils. Eosinophil-mediated tissue remodeling may be involved in NP pathogenesis; therefore, improved understanding of tissue remodeling may result the identification of novel pathways and therapeutic strategies. The present study aimed to investigate the pathological changes occurring during tissue remodeling in NP, in order to assess the role of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in localized tissue remodeling and the potential association between ICAM-1 expression and markers of eosinophil activation. A total of 28 eligible patients and 10 healthy controls participated in the current study. Nasal mucosal tissues of these subjects were retrospectively evaluated for mucosal remodeling using histopathological staining. ICAM-1 and eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) expression levels were determined by immunohistochemical analysis. Compared with the healthy controls, all the specimens from NP patients presented substantial epithelial damage, skewed cellular distribution with a reduced density of goblet cells, an increased density of subepithelial gland and increased subepithelial collagen deposition. In addition, the NP specimens exhibited significantly higher eosinophil infiltration and ICAM-1 expression compared with the controls. Positive correlations were observed between ICAM-1 and ECP expression levels (P=0.010), as well as between extracellular collagen deposition and ICAM-1 (P=0.010) and ECP (P=0.012) expression levels in the NP specimens, but not in the control specimens. Morphological evidence demonstrated eosinophil-mediated tissue remodeling in NP tissues. ICAM-1 expression in activated eosinophils was associated with NP remodeling, indicating the possibility that ICAM-1 may regulate NP remodeling.

Increased expression of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 and related cytokines in persistent allergic rhinitis.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the crucial components of host defenses and supposed to play a role in nasal inflammation such as chronic rhinosinusitis and seasonal allergic rhinitis. This study was performed to investigate the expression patterns of TLRs and related cytokines in persistent allergic rhinitis (PER). Experimental study of human nasal tissue. Academic medical center. Nasal biopsy specimens were obtained from 21 patients with PER and 21 controls from December 2012 to September 2013. Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of TLR1-9, interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-α, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α was determined by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The cellular localizations as well as protein expression of TLR2 and TLR4 were further detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting, respectively. TLR1-9 mRNA could be determined in nasal mucosa. Compared with the controls, mRNA expression of only TLR2 and TLR4 was significant higher in patients with PER (P < .05). In addition, mRNA expression of IL-6 and IL-8, but not IL-1, IL-12, IFN-α, and TNF-α, was upregulated in patients with PER vs control subjects (P < .05). However, these increased cytokines were not correlated with either TLR2 or TLR4 in patients with PER. Protein expression of TLR2 and TLR4 was consistent with mRNA levels (P < .05). The cellular distributions of TLR2 and TLR4 were localized in nasal epithelium, subepithelial glands and capillary endothelial cells, and immune cells. TLR2 and TLR4 are increased in patients with PER and may be one of the major contributors to the persistence and aggravation of allergic inflammation in PER.

Light and scanning electron microscopical studies of the tongue in the hooded crow (Aves: Corvus corone cornix)

The present study provides descriptions on the morphological and histological structure of the tongue of the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix) in relation to habitats and feeding habits. The tongue is a tall and arrow-shaped structure. Three parts are distinguished in the dorsal surface of the tongue: the apex, the body and the root. The lingual apex was bifurcated and many of acicular (needle-like) processes are found in both lateral sides of the anterior lingual part. These processes were mostly foliated. Moreover, a conical papillary crest with lateral giant papillae was located between the junction of the body and the root of the tongue. The histological structure of the caudal part of the tongue revealed numerous subepithelial mucous glands which extract their secretions on the dorsal surface of the tongue through narrow ducts. Numerous intraepithelial taste buds were reported in both rostral and caudal parts of the tongue. It was concluded that the morphological modification of the tongue of the hooded crow may be adaptations for the bird’s mode of food and feeding habits.