Subcutaneous Adipose Thickness Research Articles

Ultrasonographic abdominal adipose tissue thickness for the prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis.

Obesity has been linked to the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The meta-analysis aimed to assess the predictive role of ultrasonographic measurements of the abdominal adipose tissue thickness for GDM in pregnant women. Cohort studies evaluating the association between abdominal subcutaneous and/or visceral adipose thickness (SAT and/or VAT) and subsequent risk of GDM were retrieved from PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. Only studies with SAT/VAT measured before the diagnosis of GDM were included. Random-effects models incorporating the influence of potential heterogeneity were used to pool the results. A total of 13 studies involving 5616 pregnant women were included. Pooled results showed that both a high abdominal SAT (odds ratio [OR] for per 1-cm increment: 1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.07 to 1.41, P = 0.003, I2 = 13%; OR for high versus low category: 3.42, 95% CI: 2.31 to 5.07, P < 0.001, I2 = 0%) and VAT (OR for per 1-cm increment: 1.54, 95% CI: 1.16 to 2.06, P = 0.003, I2 = 63%; OR for high versus low category: 5.73, 95% CI: 3.39 to 9.77, P < 0.001, I2 = 31%) at early stages of pregnancy were associated with a higher subsequent risk of GDM. Subgroup analysis based on study design, timing of ultrasound examination, GDM diagnostic criteria, and study quality score showed consistent results. In conclusion, ultrasound-measured abdominal adipose tissue thickness may be useful for predicting the subsequent risk of GDM in pregnant women.

Centile reference curves of the ultrasound-based characteristics of the rectus femoris muscle composition in children at 4-11 years old.

Quantitative diagnostic ultrasound has been proposed as a way to characterize muscle structure, but there is a lack of normative data for children. This study aims to establish age-specific normal ranges for echo-intensity (EI), cross-sectional area (CSA), muscular thickness (MT), and subcutaneous adipose thickness (SAT) values of the rectus femoris muscle in typically developing children. The study recruited 497 children (288 boys and 209 girls) aged 4-10.9 years (mean age 7.39 years), and muscle parameters were measured using 2D B-mode ultrasound. Percentile values and reference curves were calculated using the Lambda, Mu, and Sigma method (LMS). The results showed small variation between measurements for boys compared to girls, with the most significant difference in EI, CSA, and MT values. EI decreased with age, with the most pronounced curve in boys. SAT increased in both sexes, with a slightly higher increase in girls after the age of 9.0 years. This study provides the first age-specific reference norms for the rectus femoris muscle architecture in children, and further research is needed to validate these curves and determine their clinical utility.

Resveratrol inhibits the formation and accumulation of lipid droplets through AdipoQ signal pathway and lipid metabolism lncRNAs

Resveratrol (RES) is one of the best-known bioactive polyphenols that has received much attention in recent years because of its importance to anti-obesity. However, the exact mechanism underlying this effect and whether it can improve lipid metabolism by regulating the long-chain noncoding RNA (lncRNA) remains unclear. In this study, 24 healthy crossbred castrated boars were fed a basal diet (control) and a basal diet supplemented with 200 mg, 400 mg or 600 mg RES per Kilogram (kg) of feed for 41 d, respectively. We found that 400 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg RES-supplemented diet did not affect growth rate, but reduced significantly subcutaneous adipose thickness, carcass fat rate, greater dramatically the serum concentration of adiponectin and high-density lipoprotein in pigs. Further, we verified that RES could inhibit the formation and accumulation of lipid droplets by AdipoQ-AdipoR1-AMPKα and AdipoQ-AdipoR2-PPARα signal pathway in vivo and vitro (3T3-L1 preadipocytes). Transcriptome analyses found that 5 differently expressed (DE) lncRNAs and 77 mRNAs in subcutaneous adipose between control group and 400 mg/kg RES group, which mainly involved in “adipocytokine signaling pathway,” “Wnt signaling pathway,” “PI3K-Akt signaling pathway” and “MAPK signaling pathway.” In conclusion, RES can inhibit the formation and accumulation of lipid droplets through AdipoQ signal pathway and lipid metabolism-related lncRNAs. Our results provide a new insight on the molecular mechanism of RES as a nutritional agents to the prevention and treatment for obesity.

Influence of subcutaneous adipose thickness and dominance on reliability of quadriceps muscle quality in healthy young individuals.

Echo intensity (EI) can be useful to check muscle quality and has been widely used to identify tissue damage. In the clinical and sports context, it has been used to identify metabolic disorders and training muscle performance. To determine whether subcutaneous adipose thickness (SAT) influences the inter-session EI reliability of the quadriceps femoris and whether EI is influenced by dominance in young healthy subjects. All procedures were approved by the local Institutional Research Ethics Committee (project number 2.620.204). This is a cross-sectional study where 19 healthy young individuals volunteered. The individuals were assessed at two time points by an experienced examiner. Imaging of the rectus femoris (RF), vastus lateralis (VL), and vastus medialis (VM) muscles were performed bilaterally by ultrasonography. EI and SAT analysis was performed using ImageJ®software. Inter-session intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for EImeasured showed moderate reliability for RF (R = 0.578; P = 0.038) and VL (R = 0.735; P = 0.004) and low for VM (R = 0.402; P = 0.142). When corrected by SAT, inter-session (EIcorrected), ICC values showed good reliability for RF (R = 0.826; P < 0.001) and VM (R = 0.765; P = 0.002) and excellent for VL (R = 0.909; P < 0.001). Considering inter-side reliability, Student's paired t-test demonstrated no difference for EImeasured (P > 0.283), EIcorrected (P > 0.127), and SAT (P > 0.356). SAT influenced the inter-session reliability values of EI in all muscles evaluated. Although they showed similarity, EI values were not influenced by dominance in young healthy subjects.

Association between remnant lipoprotein cholesterol levels and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adolescents

Background & AimsRemnant lipoprotein cholesterol (RLP-C) is an atherogenic lipid profile associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). With increased rates of CVD seen in adults with NAFLD, RLP-C has the potential to identify individuals with NAFLD who are at increased risk of CVD. This study examined in adolescents sex-different associations among RLP-C, NAFLD, and cardiometabolic risk factors, and whether RLP-C is associated with NAFLD beyond traditional cardiometabolic risk factors.MethodsAdolescents in the Raine Study had anthropometry, clinical, biochemistry and arterial stiffness measurements recorded at 17 years of age. Fatty liver, subcutaneous and visceral adipose thickness were assessed using abdominal ultrasound. Relationships among RLP-C, NAFLD, liver biochemistry, insulin resistance, adipokines, adiposity and arterial stiffness were assessed.ResultsNAFLD was diagnosed in 15.1% (19.6% females and 10.7% males) of adolescents. Increasing RLP-C levels were associated with increasing severity of hepatic steatosis and metabolic syndrome. Adolescents with NAFLD and serum RLP-C levels in the highest quartile compared with the lowest quartile, had higher serum leptin, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, BMI, subcutaneous and visceral adipose thickness, systolic blood pressure and arterial stiffness, but lower adiponectin and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. Using multivariable logistic regression, RLP-C in the lowest quartile compared with the highest quartile was associated with 85% lower odds of NAFLD in males and 55% in females, after adjusting for waist circumference, leptin, ALT, adiponectin and HOMA-IR.ConclusionsThere is an association between RLP-C and NAFLD beyond traditional risk factors of adiposity and insulin resistance in adolescents. Although raised serum RLP-C levels were associated with the severity of hepatic steatosis and markers of cardiometabolic risk, lower serum RLP-C might reflect reduced cardiovascular risk.Lay summaryRemnant lipoprotein cholesterol (RLP-C) is a part of the blood cholesterol that is linked with heart disease and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in adults. In the Raine Study, teenagers with high RLP-C levels had more severe fat accumulation in their liver. Thus, RLP-C might be the hidden link between NAFLD and future risk of heart disease.

Ultrasound assessment of maternal adipose tissue during 1st trimester screening for aneuploidies and risk of developing gestational diabetes.

The objective of the present study is to compare the sonographic measurement of subcutaneous adipose thickness and visceral adipose thickness during 1st trimester screening for aneuploidies between non-diabetic pregnant women and patients who develop 1st trimester or 2nd trimester gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Adipose thickness was measured by transabdominal ultrasound imaging in pregnant women attending our clinic for screening for fetal aneuploidies between 11 and 13weeks of gestation. During the 1st trimester all patients were evaluated for fasting glycemia in accordance with the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) recommendations. Patients with confirmed fasting glycemia (FPG) ≥92mg/dL were diagnosed as 1st trimester GDM. Patients with FPG<92mg/dL underwent a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test between 24 and 28weeks. The study population included 238 non-diabetic women, 29 women with 1st trimester GDM and 28 women with 2nd trimester GDM. Mean subcutaneous adipose thickness and visceral adipose thickness values in non-diabetic women were 9.8mm (standard deviation [SD=4.9) and 7.2mm (SD=3.5), respectively. Values in women with 1st trimester GDM were 12.8mm (SD=6.5) and 9.9mm (SD=4.4). In the 2nd trimester GDM group, the mean subcutaneous adipose thickness was 11.1mm (SD=4.6) and the mean visceral adipose thickness 10.5mm (SD=5.3). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that visceral adipose thickness, but not subcutaneous adipose thickness, was significantly and independently associated with both 1st trimester GDM (OR 1.15, 95% CI 1.02-1.29) and 2nd trimester GDM (odds ratio [OR] 1.19, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05-1.34). Sonographic thickness of maternal visceral adipose tissue was greater in women with GDM than in non-diabetic patients, independently of other known risk factors associated with GDM in the 1st and in the 2nd trimester of pregnancy. Thus, this measurement may be considered of clinical use in 1st trimester screening.

Cooling of Lower Extremity Muscles According to Subcutaneous Tissue Thickness.

When using an ice bag, previous researchers recommended cooling times based on the amount of subcutaneous tissue. Unfortunately, many clinicians are unaware of these recommendations or whether they can be applied to other muscles. To examine if muscles of the lower extremity cool similarly based on recommended cooling times. Crossover study. Athletic training laboratory. Fourteen healthy participants volunteered (8 men, 6 women; age = 21.1 ± 2.2 years, height = 174.2 ± 4.5 cm, weight = 74.0 ± 7.5 kg). Subcutaneous tissue thickness was measured at the largest girth of the thigh, medial gastrocnemius, and medial hamstring. Participants were randomized to have either the rectus femoris or medial gastrocnemius and medial hamstring tested first. Using sterile techniques, the examiner inserted a thermocouple 1 cm into the muscle after accounting for subcutaneous tissue thickness. After the temperature stabilized, a 750-g ice bag was applied for 10 to 60 minutes to the area(s) for the recommended length of time based on subcutaneous adipose thickness (0 to 5 mm [10 minutes]; 5.5 to 10 mm (25 minutes]; 10.5 to 15 mm [40 minutes]; 15.5 to 20 mm [60 minutes)]. After the ice bag was removed, temperature was monitored for 30 minutes. At least 1 week later, each participant returned to complete testing of the other muscle(s). Intramuscular temperature (°C) at baseline, end of treatment time (0 minutes), and posttreatment recovery (10, 20, and 30 minutes postintervention). At the end of treatment, temperature did not differ by subcutaneous tissue thickness (10 minutes = 29.0°C ± 3.8°C, 25 minutes = 28.7°C ± 3.2°C, 40 minutes = 28.7°C ± 6.0°C, 60 minutes = 30.0°C ± 2.9°C) or muscle (rectus femoris = 30.1°C ± 3.8°C, gastrocnemius = 28.6°C ± 5.4°C, hamstrings = 28.1°C ± 2.5°C). No significant interaction was present for subcutaneous tissue thickness or muscle (P ≥ .126). Lower extremity muscles seemed to cool similarly based on the recommended cooling times for subcutaneous tissue thickness. Clinicians should move away from standardized treatment times and adjust the amount of cooling time by ice-bag application based on subcutaneous tissue thickness.

Effect of four sessions of aerobic exercise with abdominal radiofrequency in adipose tissue in healthy women: Randomized control trial.

Abdominal adiposity is a cardiovascular risk factor; it is assumed that the combination of radiofrequency and physical exercise may decrease this excess of adipose tissue. To analyze the effect of four intervention sessions on abdominal adipose tissue. The study analyzes the effect of four sessions of aerobic exercise combined with radiofrequency. Participants were 28 healthy female volunteers, aged 18-28years, randomly assigned to an experimental group and a placebo group. They were characterized by a sociodemographic questionnaire, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the Food Frequency Questionnaire. The groups performed four sessions of abdominal radiofrequency followed by moderate aerobic exercise, assessing body mass, body mass index, fat mass, waist circumference, waist/height ratio, subcutaneous adipose thickness, and horizontal abdominal adipose fold at the first and fourth sessions. In the experimental group, a percentage of potency was used that allowed to maintain the temperature between 40°C and 42°C to the epidermis. In the placebo group, the power of the radiofrequency was 0W. To compare results, Student's t test was used for a significance level of 0.05. There was a statistically significant decrease in waist circumference, abdominal subcutaneous adipose thickness, and horizontal abdominal fold in the experimental group compared to the placebo group (P<0.05). Combined exercise intervention with radiofrequency has been shown to be effective in reducing abdominal adiposity.

The effects of fascia manipulation with fascia devices on myofascial tissue, subcutaneous fat and cellulite in adult women

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of mechanical fascia manipulation techniques as a noninvasive method to treat cellulite.Study Design: This study is designed to be a clinical study looking at the effects of a non-invasive treatment for the appearance of cellulite. Methods: Thirty-three adult women in the experimental (FT) group with thigh cellulite were instructed on fascia manipulation techniques (FMT), using the FasciaBlaster® devices (FBD) 5 days a week for 12 weeks. Measurements of subcutaneous adipose thickness (SAT) were measured using ultrasonography, along with measurements of body composition, metabolism, and routine blood chemistries at 4-week intervals.Results: In the FT group, SAT was lower from baseline at Wk4, Wk8, and Wk12. Resting energy expenditure (REE) was greater at Wk12 compared to baseline. Carboxyterminal Propeptide of Type I Procollagen (PICP) was higher at Wk4 compared to baseline. Also compared to baseline, serum irisin levels were significantly higher at Wk4, Wk8, and Wk12. No significant differences were detected in routine blood chemistries or total body composition during study period in both the FT group and the control group (CON).Conclusions: The present study provides evidence that fascia manipulation techniques (FMT), through use of the FasciaBlaster® devices (FBD), can decrease subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), and the appearance of cellulite in adult women over 12 weeks. Evidence also shows improved collagen remodeling and the overall safety of fascia manipulation and the FasciaBlaster® devices.

Maternal Subcutaneous and Visceral Adipose Ultrasound Thickness in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus at 24-28 Weeks' Gestation

Objective: To compare the sonographic measurement of maternal subcutaneous and visceral adipose thickness between pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and patients with nondiabetic pregnancies. Methods: Adipose thickness was measured by transabdominal ultrasound in pregnant women attending our antenatal clinics at 24-28 weeks' gestation. All patients underwent a 75-g oral glucose challenge as a diagnostic test for GDM. Results: The study population comprised 56 women with a positive glucose challenge test and 112 nondiabetic pregnancies. Measurements of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissues were converted into multiples of the median (MoM), adjusted for gestational age. The mean subcutaneous thickness MoM in patients with GDM was significantly higher compared to nondiabetic pregnancies (1.31 vs. 1.07; p = 0.011). Similarly, the mean visceral thickness MoM was higher in women with a positive oral glucose tolerance test compared to controls (1.61 vs. 1.06; p < 0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that visceral adipose thickness, but not subcutaneous thickness, was significantly and independently associated with GDM (odds ratio 34.047, 95% confidence interval 9.489-122.166). Conclusions: Sonographic thickness of maternal visceral adipose tissue at 24-28 weeks' gestation was higher in women with GDM compared to nondiabetic pregnancies, independently from other known risk factors associated with GDM.

Omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D in immobilisation: Part A- Modulation of appendicular mass content, composition and structure

ObjectivesMuscle size decreases in response to short-term limb immobilisation. This study set out to determine whether two potential protein-sparing modulators (eicosapentaenoic acid and vitamin D) would attenuate immobilisation-induced changes in muscle characteristics.DesignThe study used a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled design.SettingThe study took part in a laboratory setting.ParticipantsTwenty-four male and female healthy participants, aged 23.0±5.8 years.InterventionThe non-dominant arm was immobilised in a sling for a period of nine waking hours a day over two continuous weeks. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: placebo (n=8, Lecithin, 2400 mg daily), omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids (n=8, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); 1770 mg, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); 390 mg, daily) or vitamin D (n=8, 1,000 IU daily).MeasurementsMuscle and sub-cutaneous adipose thickness (B-mode ultrasonography), body composition (DXA) and arm girth (anthropometry) were measured before immobilisation, immediately on removal of the sling and two weeks after re-mobilisation.ResultsMuscle thickness (-5.4±4.3%), upper and lower arm girth (-1.3±0.4 and -0.8±0.8%, respectively), lean mass (-3.6±3.7%) and bone mineral content (BMC) (-2.3±1.5%) decreased significantly with limb immobilisation in the placebo group (P<0.05). Despite no significant effect of group, ω-3 and vitamin D supplementation showed trends (p>0.05) towards attenuating the decreases in muscle thickness, upper/lower arm girths and BMC observed in the placebo group. The ω-3 supplementation group demonstrated a non-significant attenuation of the decrease in DXA quantified lean mass observed in the placebo group. Sub-cutaneous adipose thickness increased in the placebo group (P<0.05). ω-3 and vitamin D both blunted this response, with ω-3 having a greater effect (P<0.05). All parameters had returned to baseline values at the re-mobilisation phase of the study.ConclusionOverall, at the current doses, ω-3 and vitamin D supplementation only attenuated one of the changes associated with non-injurious limb immobilisation. These findings would necessitate further research into either a) supplementation linked to injury-induced immobilisation, or b) larger doses of these supplements to confirm/refute the physiological reserve potential of the two supplements.

The relationship between epicardial fat tissue thickness and visceral adipose tissue in lean patients with polycystic ovary syndrome.

BackgroundPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is related to metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular metabolic syndromes. This is particularly true for individuals with central and abdominal obesity because visceral abdominal adipose tissue (VAAT) and epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) produce a large number of proinflammatory and proatherogenic cytokines. The present study aimed to determine whether there are changes in VAAT and EAT levels which were considered as indirect predictors for subclinical atherosclerosis in lean patients with PCOS.MethodsThe clinical and demographic characteristics of 35 patients with PCOS and 38 healthy control subjects were recorded for the present study. Additionally, the serum levels of various biochemical parameters were measured and EAT levels were assessed using 2D-transthoracic echocardiography.ResultsThere were no significant differences in mean age (p = 0.056) or mean body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.446) between the patient and control groups. However, the body fat percentage, waist-to-hip ratio, amount of abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue, and VAAT thickness were higher in the PCOS patient group than in the control group. The amounts of EAT in the patient and control groups were similar (p = 0.384). EAT was correlated with BMI, fat mass, waist circumference, and hip circumference but not with any biochemical metabolic parameters including the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance index or the levels of triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. However, there was a small positive correlation between the amounts of VAAT and EAT. VAAT was directly correlated with body fat parameters such as BMI, fat mass, and abdominal subcutaneous adipose thickness and inversely correlated with the HDL cholesterol level.ConclusionsThe present study found that increased abdominal adipose tissue in patients with PCOS was associated with atherosclerosis. Additionally, EAT may aid in the determination of the risk of atherosclerosis in patients with PCOS because it is easily measured.

Skinfold Thickness Affects The Physiological Response To Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation

The amount of subcutaneous adipose tissue may affect the transmission of electrical stimuli through the skin and thus interfere with the torque evoked by neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) and with the associated discomfort. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of skinfold thickness (SFT) on maximal NMES current intensity, NMES-evoked torque and NMES-induced discomfort. METHODS: First, we correlated SFT to NMES current intensity, NMES-induced discomfort and NMES-evoked torque in 20 healthy women. Second, we compared NMES current intensity, NMES-induced discomfort and NMES-evoked torque between two subgroups of subjects with thicker vs. thinner SFT. The NMES-evoked torque was normalized to the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque. The discomfort induced by NMES was assessed with a visual analog scale (VAS). RESULTS: A positive correlation was found between NMES current intensity and SFT (r=0.540, p=0.017). A negative correlation was found between NMES-evoked torque and SFT (r=−0.563, p=0.012). No significant correlation was observed between discomfort scores and SFT. There was a significant difference between subgroups in NMES-evoked torque (p=0.013) which was 28% lower in subjects with thicker SFT while NMES current intensity was 24% lower in subjects with thinner SFT (p=0.003). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the amount of subcutaneous adipose thickness affects NMES current intensity and NMES-evoked torque but has no effect on the perception of discomfort. Our findings may help physical therapists to better understand the impact of SFT on NMES and to design more rational stimulation strategies.

WARMING EFFICACY OF REGIONAL HEATING WITH DIFFERENT SKIN THICKNESS OF THE BODY

Many active external warming devices have been developed for medical treatment of perioperative hypothermia. Previous efficacy assessments for warming systems have generally compared different devices. This study compares the warming efficacy of regional heating at different sites of the body, and its relation to the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue. A total of 13 participants (men, 19–21 years) participated in 3 study groups, in each of which a resistive heating pad was placed on 1 of 3 sites of the body: the upper back, the lower back, and the abdomen. All participants were placed in a cold room with an ambient temperature adjusted to 21 ± 1°C to simulate an operating theater. Skin temperature distributions around the body, skin temperatures beneath the heating pad, and verbal analog score (VAS) values were recorded before and after warming. The subcutaneous adipose thickness of each site was measured using a skinfold technique. Subjective VAS values and body skin temperatures around the designated sensor areas revealed that warming efficacies varied depending on where the heating pad was placed. Efficacy was lowest when the heating pad was placed on the abdomen, where subcutaneous adipose was thickest. The VAS of the abdomen was significantly lower than that obtained from either the lower back or the upper back (p &lt; 0.05). These results suggest that the warming efficacies of regional heating could vary with subcutaneous adipose thickness. The influence of the subcutaneous adipose layer on heat transfer warrants further investigation for warming applications.

Computer tomographic investigation of subcutaneous adipose tissue as an indicator of body composition

BackgroundModern computer tomography (CT) equipment can be used to acquire whole-body data from large animals such as pigs in minutes or less. In some circumstances, computer assisted analysis of the resulting image data can identify and measure anatomical features. The thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue at a specific site measured by ultrasound, is used in the pig industry to assess adiposity and inform management decisions that have an impact on reproduction, food conversion performance and sow longevity. The measurement site, called "P2", is used throughout the industry. We propose that CT can be used to measure subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness and identify novel measurement sites that can be used as predictors of general adiposity.MethodsGrowing pigs (N = 12), were each CT scanned on three occasions. From these data the total volume of adipose tissue was determined and expressed as a proportion of total volume (fat-index). A computer algorithm was used to determined 10,201 subcutaneous adipose thickness measurements in each pig for each scan. From these data, sites were selected where correlation with fat-index was optimal.ResultsImage analysis correctly identified the limits of the relevant tissues and automated measurements were successfully generated. Two sites on the animal were identified where there was optimal correlation with fat-index. The first of these was located 4 intercostal spaces cranial to the caudal extremity of the last rib, the other, a further 5 intercostal spaces cranially.ConclusionThe approach to image analysis reported permits the creation of various maps showing adipose thickness or correlation of thickness with other variables by location on the surface of the pig. The method identified novel adipose thickness measurement positions that are superior (as predictors of adiposity) to the site which is in current use. A similar approach could be used in other situations to quantify potential links between subcutaneous adiposity and disease or production traits.

Influence of ruminal and postruminal carbohydrate infusion on visceral organ mass and adipose tissue accretion in growing beef steers1

Forty crossbred beef steers (243 +/- 2 kg of BW) with ruminal and abomasal infusion catheters were used to test 2 hypotheses: 1) visceral mass is responsive to energy input and site of carbohydrate (CHO) infusion and 2) rate and site of adipose accretion are dependent on site of CHO infusion and complexity. Treatments included a pelleted, forage-based, basal diet fed at 161 (LI) or 214 (HI) kcal of ME/(kg of BW(0.75) x d), LI plus ruminal (R-SH) or abomasal (A-SH) infusion of a partial starch hydrolysate (SH), and LI plus abomasal infusion of glucose (A-G). The basal diet was fed in 12 equal portions daily at 2-h intervals, with starch and glucose infused over a 22-h period at rates of 12.6 and 14.4 g/(kg of BW(0.75) x d). After 35 d of infusion, steers were slaughtered; and visceral organ and adipose mass, subcutaneous adipose thickness over the 5th and 12th rib, and LM intramuscular fat concentration were determined. Total intake energy (IE) increased (P = 0.0001) with ME intake. Dietary IE was similar between LI and CHO treatments, but total IE increased (P < 0.001) with CHO infusion. Greater dietary ME intake and CHO infusion increased or tended (P < or = 0.09) to increase final BW and HCW. As a percentage of empty BW, total stomach complex, rumen, omasum, liver, pancreas, and kidney weights were greater (P < or = 0.05) for HI vs. LI. Stomach complex, rumen, pancreas, and kidney weights as a percentage of empty BW were greater (P < or = 0.05) for R-SH vs. A-SH. Compared with ASH, A-G increased (P < or = 0.02) total and mucosal weights from the 10-cm sections of the ileum. Increases in rumen mass were associated with no change or an increase in rumen total and mucosal DNA concentrations. Greater dietary ME tended (P = 0.06) to increase subcutaneous fat thickness at the 5th rib but did not affect alimentary adipose accretion on an empty BW basis. Omental and total alimentary adipose weights were increased (P < or = 0.04) by A-G compared with A-SH. Although SH infusion did not alter adiposity, there was a consistent numerical pattern in total alimentary and subcutaneous fat depots with CHO infusion (A-G > ASH > R-SH). Our findings demonstrate that increasing ruminal CHO supply results in a disproportionate increase in rumen mass, whereas increasing small intestinal CHO supply does not alter gastrointestinal organ mass. Small intestinal energy in the form of glucose resulted in greater adipose accretion, particularly the omental depot.

Blood Flow in Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Depends on Skin-fold Thickness

Blood flow in subcutaneous adipose tissue is reduced in obese compared to lean subjects. Limitations in vascular supply might interfere with adipose tissue function as a metabolic and endocrine organ. We tested the hypothesis that nutritive blood flow and tissue metabolism depends on subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness even in normal-weight subjects. Sixteen young, healthy, normal-weight subjects (8 men, 8 women) were included in the study. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose thickness was assessed by skin-fold measurements. The microdialysis technique was applied for monitoring basal adipose tissue blood flow (ethanol dilution technique) and metabolism. An increase in skin-fold thickness from 15 to 45 mm and from 8 to 37 mm was associated with a linear increase in basal ethanol ratio from 0.19 to 0.63 and 0.25 to 0.75 and linear decreases in dialysate glucose concentrations from 1.95 to 0.24 mM and 1.68 to 0.29 mM, and 152 to 42 microM and 172 to 49 microM for glycerol concentrations in men and women, respectively (p < 0.05). Isoproterenol-stimulated blood flow also inversely correlated to skin-fold thickness (p < 0.05). We conclude that increased adipose tissue thickness is associated with reduced tissue perfusion and metabolism, even in lean subjects. Skin-fold thickness is an important confounding variable in metabolic studies, particularly in microdialysis experiments.

Subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness alters cooling time during cryotherapy

Otte JW, Merrick MA, Ingersoll CD, Cordova ML. Subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness alters cooling time during cryotherapy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002;83:1501-5. Objective: To determine if differing subcutaneous adipose thickness alters the treatment duration required to produce a standard cooling effect during cryotherapy. Design: A 4-group, between-groups comparison in which the independent variable was skinfold thickness (0–10mm, 11–20mm, 21–30mm, 31–40mm) and the dependent variable was cooling time, defined as the treatment duration required to decrease intramuscular (IM) temperature 7°C from baseline. Setting: A sports injury research laboratory. Participants: Forty-seven volunteers with anterior thigh skinfold measurement of less than 40mm. Intervention: Topical cryotherapy (750g crushed-ice bag) to the anterior thigh to produce a typical cooling effect, defined as IM temperature at 1cm subadipose declining by 7°C. Main Outcome Measure: Cryotherapy treatment duration required to produce a standardized cooling effect in subjects with differing subcutaneous adipose thickness. Results: Analysis of variance revealed that mean time to cool IM tissues by 7°C differed across all groups, with cooling time increasing as adipose thickness increased. The mean ± standard deviation cooling times were as follows: 31–40mm (58.6±11.7min), 21–30mm (37.8±9.6min), 11–20mm (23.3±6.7min), and 0–10mm (8.0±3.4min). Conclusions: During cold application, there is a clinically important direct relationship between adipose thickness and required cooling time. This relationship necessitates dramatic adjustments to cryotherapy duration to produce similar IM temperature changes. A 25-minute treatment may be adequate for a patient with a skinfold of 20mm or less; however, a 40-minute application is required to produce similar results in a patients with skinfolds between 21 and 30mm, whereas a 60-minute application is required for patients with skinfolds of 30 to 40mm. © 2002 by the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

The relationship between intramuscular temperature, skin temperature, and adipose thickness during cryotherapy and rewarming

ABSTRACT Jutte LS, Merrick MA, Ingersoll CD, Edwards JE. The relationship between intramuscular temperature, skin temperature, and adipose thickness during cryotherapy and rewarming. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:845-50. Objective: To describe the relationships among muscle temperature, skin temperature, room temperature, body core temperature, time, and subcutaneous adipose thickness during cryotherapy and rewarming. Design: A multiple linear regression with 5 independent variables (skin temperature, body core temperature, subcutaneous adipose thickness, room temperature, time) predicting intramuscular (IM) temperature. Setting: A sports injury research laboratory. Participants: Fifteen volunteers with thigh skinfold measurements smaller than 40 mm. Interventions: Thirty-minute cryotherapy treatment (ice bag) followed by a 120-minute rewarming period. Main Outcome Measures: The relationship between skin and IM temperature was described, and an equation predicting IM temperature by using room temperature, skin temperature, body core temperature, time, and adipose thickness was developed. Results: Pearson's correlations between each predictor variable of IM temperature during cryotherapy were skin temperature, r =.46; skinfold, r =.37; time, r = −.59; core temperature, r =.21; and room temperature, r = −.47. During rewarming, the correlations were skin temperature, r =.71; skinfold, r =.27; time, r =.76; core temperature, r = −.05; and room temperature, r = −.21. A multiple regression equation (R2 =.76) was developed to predict IM temperature during cryotherapy. A separate equation (R2 =.81) was developed to predict muscle temperatures during rewarming. Conclusions: During and after ice application, no single predictor adequately explained the change in IM temperature. Skin surface temperature was a weak predictor of IM temperature during cryotherapy and should not be used as the sole dependent measure in cryotherapy efficacy studies.