Subcellular Localization Of Photosensitizer Research Articles

Metal-Organic Layer Delivers 5-Aminolevulinic Acid and Porphyrin for Dual-Organelle-Targeted Photodynamic Therapy.

The efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) depends on the subcellular localization of photosensitizers. Herein, we report a dual-organelle-targeted nanoparticle platform for enhanced PDT of cancer. By grafting 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) to a Hf12 -based nanoscale metal-organic layer (Hf-MOL) via carboxylate coordination, ALA/Hf-MOL enhanced ALA delivery and protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) synthesis in mitochondria, and trapped the Hf-MOL comprising 5,15-di-p-benzoatoporphyrin (DBP) photosensitizers in lysosomes. Light irradiation at 630 nm simultaneously excited PpIX and DBP to generate singlet oxygen and rapidly damage both mitochondria and lysosomes, leading to synergistic enhancement of the PDT efficacy. The dual-organelle-targeted ALA/Hf-MOL outperformed Hf-MOL in preclinical PDT studies, with a 2.7-fold lower half maximal inhibitory concentration in cytotoxicity assays in vitro and a 3-fold higher cure rate in a colon cancer model in vivo.

Metal‐Organic Layer Delivers 5‐Aminolevulinic Acid and Porphyrin for Dual‐Organelle‐Targeted Photodynamic Therapy

AbstractThe efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) depends on the subcellular localization of photosensitizers. Herein, we report a dual‐organelle‐targeted nanoparticle platform for enhanced PDT of cancer. By grafting 5‐aminolevulinic acid (ALA) to a Hf12‐based nanoscale metal‐organic layer (Hf‐MOL) via carboxylate coordination, ALA/Hf‐MOL enhanced ALA delivery and protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) synthesis in mitochondria, and trapped the Hf‐MOL comprising 5,15‐di‐p‐benzoatoporphyrin (DBP) photosensitizers in lysosomes. Light irradiation at 630 nm simultaneously excited PpIX and DBP to generate singlet oxygen and rapidly damage both mitochondria and lysosomes, leading to synergistic enhancement of the PDT efficacy. The dual‐organelle‐targeted ALA/Hf‐MOL outperformed Hf‐MOL in preclinical PDT studies, with a 2.7‐fold lower half maximal inhibitory concentration in cytotoxicity assays in vitro and a 3‐fold higher cure rate in a colon cancer model in vivo.

Photodynamic therapy regulates fate of cancer stem cells through reactive oxygen species.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective and promising cancer treatment. PDT directly generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) through photochemical reactions. This oxygen-dependent exogenous ROS has anti-cancer stem cell (CSC) effect. In addition, PDT may also increase ROS production by altering metabolism, endoplasmic reticulum stress, or potential of mitochondrial membrane. It is known that the half-life of ROS in PDT is short, with high reactivity and limited diffusion distance. Therefore, the main targeting position of PDT is often the subcellular localization of photosensitizers, which is helpful for us to explain how PDT affects CSC characteristics, including differentiation, self-renewal, apoptosis, autophagy, and immunogenicity. Broadly speaking, excess ROS will damage the redox system and cause oxidative damage to molecules such as DNA, change mitochondrial permeability, activate unfolded protein response, autophagy, and CSC resting state. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanism by which ROS affect CSCs is beneficial to improve the efficiency of PDT and prevent tumor recurrence and metastasis. In this article, we review the effects of two types of photochemical reactions on PDT, the metabolic processes, and the biological effects of ROS in different subcellular locations on CSCs.

Selective photosensitizer delivery into plasma membrane for effective photodynamic therapy

Subcellular localization of photosensitizers (PSs) determines the therapeutic efficacy in the photodynamic therapy. However, among the subcellular compartments, there has been little effort to deliver the PSs selectively into the plasma membrane and examine the phototherapeutic efficacy of membrane-localized PSs. Here, we developed a liposomal delivery system to localize the hydrophobic PSs selectively into the plasma membrane. The membrane fusogenic liposomes (MFLs), the membrane of which is engineered to fuse with the plasma membrane, was prepared for the membrane localization of PSs. The phototherapeutic efficacy of cells treated with ZnPc-loaded MFLs was superior over that of cells treated with ZnPc-loaded non-fusogenic liposomes, which is the conventional liposomal formulation that delivers the PSs into the intracellular compartments via endocytosis. The membrane localization of ZnPc molecules led to rapid membrane disruption upon irradiation and subsequent necrosis-like cell death. The membrane-localized generation of reactive oxygen species in the cells treated with ZnPc-loaded MFLs was likely to account for the effective disruption of plasma membrane. Thus, this work provides a novel delivery method to localize the PSs selectively into the plasma membrane with the enhanced phototherapeutic efficacy.

Assessment of DNA Damage after Photodynamic Therapy Using a Metallophthalocyanine Photosensitizer

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a chemotherapeutic approach that utilizes a bifunctional reagent, a photosensitizer (PS) that localizes to the target tissue relative to the surrounding tissue and is toxic when exposed to laser light. PDT rapidly induces cell death, inflammatory and immune reactions, and damage of the microvasculature. DNA damage results from a variety of factors including UV-light, X-rays, ionizing radiation, toxins, chemicals, or reactive oxygen species. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of PDT as well as the influence of presensitization leading to the adaptive response (AR) on the integrity of DNA. Lung (A549), breast (MCF-7), and esophageal (SNO) cancer cells and Zn sulfophthalocyanine as PS with irradiation conditions of 10 J/cm2at 636 nm were used. Subcellular localization of PS, cell morphology, and viability after PDT and DNA damage were determined. A significant decrease in viability and marked DNA damage was observed in all 3 cancer cell types in response to PDT while the adaptive response was demonstrated to significantly decrease the effectiveness of the PDT.

Subcellular Localization of Merocyanine 540 (MC540) and Induction of Apoptosis in Murine Myeloid Leukemia Cells ¶

Subcellular localization of photosensitizers is thought to play a critical role in determining the mode of cell death after photodynamic treatment (PDT) of leukemia cells. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescent organelle probes, we examined the subcellular localization of merocyanine 540 (MC540) in the murine myeloid leukemia M1 and WEHI 3B (JCS) cells. Two patterns of localization were observed: in JCS cells, MC540 was found to localize on the plasma membrane and mitochondria; and in M1 leukemia cells, MC540 was found to localize on lysosomes. The relationship between subcellular localization of MC540 and PDT-induced apoptosis was investigated. Apoptotic cell death, as judged by the formation of apoptotic nuclei, was observed 4 h after irradiation in both leukemia cell lines. Typical ladders of apoptotic DNA fragments were also detected by DNA gel electrophoresis in PDT-treated JCS and M1 cells. At the irradiation dose of 46 kJ/m2 (LD90 for JCS and LD86 for M1 cells), the percentage of apoptotic JCS and M1 cells was 78 and 38%, respectively. This study provided substantial evidence that MC540 localized differentially in the mitochondria, and the subsequent photodamage of the organelle played an important role in PDT-mediated apoptosis in myeloid leukemia cells.

The history of PDT in Norway: Part II. Recent advances in general PDT and ALA-PDT

Generation of singlet oxygen and estimation of its lifetime, the oxygen effect, the subcellular localization of photosensitizers and their photodegradation during photodynamic therapy (PDT), the effects of PDT on DNA and chromosomes were described in the first part of our review. In this review we discuss PDT in combination with other treatments (hyperthermia, ionizing radiation, electrotherapy, chemotherapeutic drugs) or with other agents; cell interactions and bystander effects in PDT; the influence of PDT on the cytoskeleton; a novel technology, named photochemical internalisation (PCI), for light-induced delivery of macromolecules and 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) PDT. Lipophilic derivatives of ALA, instead of ALA itself, were proposed for induction of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) in the treatment of superficial lesions. Based on this research a Norwegian company PhotoCure ASA was founded in 1993 with the aim to commercialise photodynamic technologies developed at the Norwegian Radium Hospital, the largest comprehensive cancer centre in Northern Europe. The company has two products on the market: Metvix(®) for treatment of basal cell carcinomas and actinic keratoses, and Hexvix(®) for fluorescence diagnosis of bladder cancer. New ALA derivatives for fluorescence diagnosis and treatment of early-stage cancers in internal organs, e.g. colon cancer, are currently being investigated.

Dynamics of interactions of photosensitizers with lipoproteins and membrane-models: correlation with cellular incorporation and subcellular distribution

The incorporation and subcellular localization of photosensitizers are critical determinants of their efficiency. Here, we correlate these properties with the interactions of photosensitizers with membrane-models and low density lipoproteins (LDL) in acellular systems. Focus was given on dynamics aspects. Two amphiphilic photosensitizers, deuteroporphyrin (DP) and aluminum phthalocyanine sulfonated on two adjacent isoindole units (AlPcS2a) were selected. The phthalocyanine was bound to LDL with an overall association constant around 5 × 10 7 M −1. Biphasic association kinetics was indicative of two types of sites. The release of the phthalocyanine into the bulk aqueous medium occurred within less than a second. A similar behavior was found previously for deuteroporphyrin although its affinity was somewhat higher (5.5 × 10 8 M −1). Both compounds were previously characterized by high affinity for membrane-models and quick exchange with the bulk solution. However, they strongly differed by their rate of transfer through the lipid bilayer, in the range of seconds for the porphyrin, several hours for the phthalocyanine. In the case of the porphyrin, fluorescence microscopy on human fibroblasts showed diffuse labeling with no significant modification of the distribution upon vectorization by LDL. In contrast, the phthalocyanine was localized in intracellular vesicles. Vectorization by LDL favored lysosomal localization although little effect was found on the overall uptake as shown by extraction experiments. The role of lipoproteins in the cellular localization of photosensitizers is significantly more important for photosensitizers not freely diffusing through bilayers. The dynamics of the interactions of photosensitizers with membranes appears as an important determinant of their subcellular localization.

Subcellular localization of merocyanine 540 (MC540) and induction of apoptosis in murine myeloid leukemia cells.

Subcellular localization of photosensitizers is thought to play a critical role in determining the mode of cell death after photodynamic treatment (PDT) of leukemia cells. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescent organelle probes, we examined the subcellular localization of merocyanine 540 (MC540) in the murine myeloid leukemia M1 and WEHI 3B (JCS) cells. Two patterns of localization were observed: in JCS cells, MC540 was found to localize on the plasma membrane and mitochondria; and in M1 leukemia cells, MC540 was found to localize on lysosomes. The relationship between subcellular localization of MC540 and PDT-induced apoptosis was investigated. Apoptotic cell death, as judged by the formation of apoptotic nuclei, was observed 4 h after irradiation in both leukemia cell lines. Typical ladders of apoptotic DNA fragments were also detected by DNA gel electrophoresis in PDT-treated JCS and M1 cells. At the irradiation dose of 46 kJ/m2 (LD90 for JCS and LD86 for M1 cells), the percentage of apoptotic JCS and M1 cells was 78 and 38%, respectively. This study provided substantial evidence that MC540 localized differentially in the mitochondria, and the subsequent photodamage of the organelle played an important role in PDT-mediated apoptosis in myeloid leukemia cells.