Sub-regional Organizations Research Articles

Wysiłki polityczne Somalii o przyjęcie do Wspólnoty Wschodnioafrykańskiej (EAC) jako znaczący krok na rzecz procesu stabilizacji państwa i regionu

SOMALIA’S POLITICAL EFFORTS TO JOIN THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC) AS A SIGNIFICANT STEP IN THE PROCESS OF STABILIZING THE STATE AND THE REGIONOn 31 May 2023, the Extraordinary Summit of Heads of State of the East African Community (EAC) adopted the report on the verification of the accession application of the Federal Republic of Somalia, while deciding to start accession negotiations with immediate effect. The purpose of this article is to attempt to assess this decision, in the context of the admission of one of the world’s most unstable states to a sub-regional organisation that is considered the most advanced in achieving integration goals across the African continent. Due to the fact that Somalia became a member of the Community on 15 December 2023 – almost simultaneously with the submission of this text – an objective assessment of the impact of this decision is not yet possible, but it is possible to attempt to answer questions concerning the political and economic objectives of the accession process undertaken, as well as the potential consequences of its positive implementation.

The neuroanatomical organization of the hypothalamus is driven by spatial and topological efficiency.

The hypothalamus in the mammalian brain is responsible for regulating functions associated with survival and reproduction representing a complex set of highly interconnected, yet anatomically and functionally distinct, sub-regions. It remains unclear what factors drive the spatial organization of sub-regions within the hypothalamus. One potential factor may be structural connectivity of the network that promotes efficient function with well-connected sub-regions placed closer together geometrically, i.e., the strongest axonal signal transferred through the shortest geometrical distance. To empirically test for such efficiency, we use hypothalamic data derived from the Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas, which provides a structural connectivity map of mouse brain regions derived from a series of viral tracing experiments. Using both cost function minimization and comparison with a weighted, sphere-packing ensemble, we demonstrate that the sum of the distances between hypothalamic sub-regions are not close to the minimum possible distance, consistent with prior whole brain studies. However, if such distances are weighted by the inverse of the magnitude of the connectivity, their sum is among the lowest possible values. Specifically, the hypothalamus appears within the top 94th percentile of neural efficiencies of randomly packed configurations and within one standard deviation of the median efficiency when packings are optimized for maximal neural efficiency. Our results, therefore, indicate that a combination of geometrical and topological constraints help govern the structure of the hypothalamus.

Collective Security and the African Regional Integration

The end of the cold war and the marginalization of Africa, coupled with the vicious cycle of poverty, underdevelopment, disease and internecine conflicts are reasons for the aggressive support for African regional integration and security mechanism. Meanwhile, commitments to African regional integration have been constrained by a highly ambivalent critique of the colonial heritage of sovereignty, and unwilling to transfer any of such freedom to supra-national bodies. Yet this has the potential of enhancing their ability to coordinate the implementation of collective security. The objective of this research therefore is to place the relationship between the African regional integration and the efficacy of collective security within the region. The study adopted the Survey research design. The main instrument for data collection was structured questionnaires. The Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was used in testing the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed that, there is a significant relationship between African regional integration and collective security/ effective deterrent to aggression, and also that, there is a significant relationship between the failure of African regional integration and the security dilemma confronting the region. The researcher therefore recommends that for the purpose of conflict management, the partnership between the UN and the AU, with its corresponding sub-regional organizations, should be akin to a pyramid. Regional security integration should rest on concepts of good governance, sound civil-military relations and commitments to democracy and human rights, and that regional security arrangements need to focus on modest measures for the prevention and containment of conflicts, rather than utopian ideas and complex institutional mechanisms.

Science Advisory to Governments and Regional/Sub-Regional Organizations in West and Central Africa

Science advice to governments and regional and sub-regional organizations in West and Central Africa has been reviewed. The objectives were to analyze its evolution and characterize the sources of advice. During the colonial period, it was by the colonial administrations and for their needs. At independence, in general, the new nations (particularly French speaking) entered into agreements with the former colonial powers to develop science, technology and innovation capacity for sustainable development. English speaking nations sought more partners outside the colonial experience. Colonial research institutes were increasingly transformed into national research institutes/institutions with national development mandates. Governments increasingly turned to science advice from consultants, inter- ministerial committees, advisory bodies, ad hoc experts’ groups, or a combination of these. Regional/sub-regional organizations sought advice from consultants, ad hoc technical experts’ groups, advisory bodies or a combination of these. Increasingly, science advice is delivered by Africans. Science advice by science academies is most rigorous. The arrival of more science academies, with varying links with governments, indicates that evidence-based science advice is growing in the region.

Of War, Moral Duties and Social Reconstruction in Africa

Wars are a critical part of human history and development. The history of societies, kingdoms and modern states are replete with different accounts of how great empires were formed and weak ones vanquished. Extant scholarly narratives explore the notion of justice in and during war (jus in bello) but with little or no attention to the very pertinent idea of post-war justice, that is, the lot of the ravaged societies and states, especially as it concerns their reconstruction and rehabilitation. This paper therefore interrogates the question of war and moral duties of States in Africa. Utilizing W.D Ross’ notion of Prima Facie Duties, it establishes the moral agency of states and concludes that there is a pertinent need for International Organizations, Sub-Regional Organizations and States to begin to innovate and deploy indigenous and social approaches as a matter of duty in order to salvage war ravaged regions of Africa.

ASEAN competence in the field of human rights

The article is devoted to consideration of the competence of ASEAN in the field of human rights. Human rights are universal values agreed by the countries of the world. The main pillars of the international system of promotion and protection of human rights are regional mechanisms for the protection of human rights. The most prominent subregional organization in the Asia-Pacific region in terms of recent human rights developments is ASEAN. ASEAN is an international intergovernmental subregional organization of countries located in Southeast Asia. The ASEAN Charter enshrined human rights as a fundamental principle of ASEAN and created a mechanism to promote and protect the human rights and fundamental freedoms of ASEAN citizens. Respect for fundamental freedoms, the promotion and protection of human rights, and the promotion of social justice are among the general principles binding on member states. To ensure the implementation of the provisions of the Charter in the aspect of human rights protection, the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights was established, which later adopted the ASEAN Declaration of Human Rights. But despite quite significant progress in the aspect of legal support of ASEAN's competence in the field of human rights, practical problems still exist today. In particular, one of the problematic issues that still exists within the Association is the provision of human rights in the region. After all, guided by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of states, ASEAN does not pay attention to events related to the violation of human rights in the territories of its member states. In addition, ASEAN does not have judicial bodies to consider cases of human rights violations by member countries, as European countries do. The ASEAN Commission itself does not have the authority to make binding decisions, consider cases or conduct investigative visits. The absence of such functions and the absence of mandatory requirements regarding the independence and experience of AICHR members lead to debate. At the same time, the provision concerning the scope of powers to make decisions only by consensus is subject to the most criticism. After all, every state can reject any criticism of its human rights by way of veto.

The Challenges of Regional Integration and Effective Implementation of African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Policy in Africa

The paper is an investigation of the challenges of regional integration in Africa and their effects on the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) policy. The major objective of the paper is to proffer solutions to the challenges for the effective actualization of the policy. The assumptions of the neo-liberal theory were used to support the AfCFTA initiative to promote economic growth and development in Africa. The data used to advance the argument were obtained from secondary sources of data collection. The study finds that language barrier, multiple currencies, porosity of borders, foreign interference, political instability and insecurity, poor human development, over-lapping of membership of sub-regional organizations, poor state of infrastructure, and state-centric nature of integration initiatives are some of the core challenges hindering the effective execution of the AfCFTA policy. The study recommends that the African Union (AU) should intensify effort at realizing a single currency policy for Africa; design comprehensive regional security architecture to include high technological surveillance, joint air and ground border patrol among member states of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) to address trans-border crimes and insecurity. There should also be institutionalization of counterpart funding among AU member-states for infrastructural development; and encouragement of private and civil society participation in the integration initiative, among others. In concludes that if the challenges identified are not effectively addressed, it will be very difficult for the AU to successfully realize the objectives of the AfCFTA policy.

Ecowas Election Monitoring and Challenges of Election Security Management in Nigeria - A Post Analysis

Elections in Nigeria are becoming a recurring democratic norm and need to be sustained by every stakeholder in the democratic enterprise. However, the political system is not without insurmountable challenges, as national and regional efforts through the Economic Community of West African States, ECOWAS seeks to deepen and consolidate Nigeria’s fragile democracy through participatory observer missions at elections. There are pockets of electoral security challenges and calls for synergy between the Nigerian government and respective institutions to deploy more funding and logistics for smooth elections and respect for electoral guidelines by political parties. A post-analysis study of this research shows that Nigeria’s elections are flawed with tampering, violence, vote buying, rigging, manipulation and abuse of voter register and registration process. The study further focused on the challenges of election monitoring by the sub-regional organization and election security management in light of Nigeria’s elections. The study concludes by highlighting key issues that must be addressed to avert electoral security challenges.

Региональные особенности соблюдения требований FATF

Increasingly expanding international requirements in the field of combating money laundering and terrorist financing (AML/CFT) force the public and financial sector to seek a balance between the rising costs of their implementation and sanctions threats for non-compliance. A number of scientific publications describe regional AML/CFT cooperation in the European Union (EU) as an example of such a balance. Some EU countries coordinate their actions within the framework of the Financial Action Tasks Force on Money Laundering (FATF), which is the methodological centre of the global anti-money laundering movement. Russia is a member of the FATF and its two regional groups: MONEYVAL, organized by the Council of Europe, and the Eurasian Group (EAG) initiated by Russia itself, which unites Russia's neighbouring, mainly Asian, countries. This study covers the results of assessments of compliance by EU and EAG countries with FATF requirements in order to study approaches to AML/CFT regional cooperation and to identify problems arising in this process and prospects for international cooperation. The methods of comparative and graphical analysis were used. The authors show that deep regional integration of lawmaking is not in itself a fundamental factor in achieving equally high rates of compliance with FATF requirements. Indifference to matters of monitoring compliance with approved regional anti-money laundering standards allows particular EU countries to act in the national interest, contrary to the 40 FATF recommendations and the goals of the global AML/CFT regime. On the contrary, the EAG countries demonstrate steady progress in the introduction of legislation and practical implementation of FATF requirements, which indicates their collective awareness of the benefits from financial information transparency and the possibility of exchanging this information at the international level.

Regionalization of Peacekeeping in Africa: The Case of the African Union

This study examines the peacekeeping experience of the African Union (AU), which claims to be the main security provider on the African continent. Based on the case study method, the principle of historicism and a chronological approach, the author proposes a classification and a comprehensive analysis of the AU operations, from the first to the current missions. The aim of the research is to provide a balanced characterisation of the AU in conflict resolution by describing both the missions and the external environment in which they have been deployed, and by abstracting from the deliberately negative connotations associated with assessments of the potential of regional security forces. It analyses the dynamics, legal frameworks, characteristics and outcomes of deployed peacekeeping operations, both under the auspices of the AU alone (in Burundi, Comoros, Sudan/Darfur, Somalia) and in cooperation with the UN and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) (in Darfur, Mali, Central African Republic, CAR). As a result of the study, the author describes the key parameters of established models of African conflict resolution. The experience and practice of the AU - UN interaction show that the AU is ready to quickly respond to emerging crises and to contain bloodshed, often in the absence of peace processes and well before the UN intervention. The current format of interaction between the two organizations demonstrates the readiness of the UN to deploy its own contingents once the “hot” phase of the conflict is over and conditions for political dialogue are formed. However, with the launch of the first and so far only hybrid UN - AU mission (UNAMID) a new model of cooperation is gradually emerging that complements the existing simple “division of labor.” The purely regional format of peacekeeping stems from the potential of regional actors. The African Union, as a continental regional organization, plays a crucial role in maintaining the regional security regime, while sub-regional organizations carry out operational functions on the basis of regional security arrangements. The author assesses the peacekeeping missions carried out and highlights the challenges faced by African peacekeepers in their work.

Peranan Gulf Cooperation Council terhadap Penyelesaian Konflik Qatar-Arab Saudi

<p><em>This study aims to determine the role of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) as a sub-regional organization in the Middle East region towards the settlement of the Qatar-Saudi Arabia conflict and the Qatar-Saudi Arabia conflict resolution strategy within the GCC Framework. The method used in this research is descriptive method with data collection techniques in the form of literature review sourced from books, journals, articles, official internet sites, and reports related to this research.</em></p><p><em>The results of this study indicate that the GCC acts as an instrument for the Gulf countries to achieve their national goals. One of them is in the process of conflict resolution. The GCC acts as an arena where conflict resolution efforts between GCC member countries are mediated through the implementation of the 38th Summit to the 41st Summit. The Qatar-Saudi Arabia conflict resolution strategy within the GCC Framework was initiated by the GCC member countries, namely Kuwait and Oman. The two countries continue to maintain good relations with Qatar and resolve GCC internal disputes by establishing mediation between Qatar and Arab countries.</em></p>

Democratic Peace and Liberal Peace: Argumentative and Intentions


 Some people believe that the concept of liberal peace should be seen in relation to the thesis of democratic peace. This literature focused more on whether democratic countries are more peaceful in their foreign relations and tried to provide a theoretical and empirical explanation for this. The democratic peace thesis states the following: 1) Democratic states rarely fight each other. 2) Democratic countries tend to be more open to international trade than non-democratic ones, which creates interdependencies that prevent war from breaking out between them.3) Democracies tend to be more internally peaceful than other systems. Here, it is important to point out that the thesis of democratic peace is closely related to Immanuel Kant’s idea of “perpetual peace”. As for the liberal peace thesis, from Richmond’s point of view, it bears four main aspects that emerged from the discussions in international theory and the different historical contexts related to the subject, especially in the West. These include the four aspects of liberal peace (victorious peace, constitutional peace, institutional peace, and civil peace). Richmond noted that the peace of the victor is the result of the old realist argument that peace depends on military victory and on the domination of the victor. But the peace of the victor may result in political resistance, as in Iraq and Afghanistan. The second, constitutional peace, derives from the Kantian argument that peace is the result of democracy, commerce, and a set of universal values based on individualism. Richmond notes that "the constitutional peace struggles with those who do not want to share power, and who do not want to entrench local legal structures that might prohibit their activities." As for institutional peace, it is the peace that results from normative and legal institutional arrangements between countries that agree - in a multilateral manner - on ways to act and impose or define their behavior. This can be found in international institutions such as the United Nations as well as regional organizations such as the European Union, the African Union (AU), the League of Arab States (AL), the Organization of American States (OAS), and subregional organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The fourth aspect, (civil peace), which emphasizes the importance of the participation of citizens and civil society institutions in making peace. Unlike the other three aspects of liberal peace, the contribution of individuals rather than the state or international organization is included in this strategy.
 

Current Status and Challenges of Pharmacovigilance of Traditional Medicines in French-Speaking West African (UEMOA) Countries.

West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) countries are characterised by a high prevalence of informal use of medicinal plants and traditional medicines by their population for health care, requiring the establishment of pharmacovigilance, in order to monitor the associated health risks. However, the state of implementation of pharmacovigilance for traditional medicines in UEMOA countries is not known. This study aimed to assess the state of implementation of pharmacovigilance for traditional medicines in the eight UEMOA countries, describing the relevant community provisions, assessing the integration of traditional medicines monitoring into national pharmacovigilance systems and identifying related national challenges. This was a cross-sectional study using questionnaires, conducted between 1 May and 31 August 2022. A face-to-face questionnaire was administered to officials responsible for the issue within UEMOA and the West African Health Organisation (WAHO). A second online questionnaire was specifically sent to the pharmacovigilance focal points of the eight UEMOA countries. Questionnaires were designed using the WHO indicators for pharmacovigilance. The face-to-face questionnaire collected two types of data, namely community policies and regulations on pharmacovigilance and technical and financial support from sub-regional organisations to countries. The online questionnaire sent to countries collected four categories of data on the study issue: structural data, process data, impact data and data on national challenges. As a community provision, WAHO has a harmonised regulatory framework for phytovigilance. The monitoring of traditional medicines is not effectively implemented in the pharmacovigilance systems of UEMOA countries. Only two reports of adverse events due to traditional medicines have so far been recorded in the Union. The countries have neither funding nor sufficient human resources for pharmacovigilance in general. Monitoring of traditional medicines in the unregulated market, training of stakeholders, risk communication, and integration of traditional health practitioners in reporting systems are the main challenges of countries for the development of pharmacovigilance for traditional medicines. The effective compliance of WAHO's harmonised phytovigilance regulatory framework by UEMOA countries and addressing the challenges identified by the countries constitute the basis for the development of pharmacovigilance for traditional medicines within UEMOA.

Argentine-Brazilian contradictions as a factor of disintegration in South America

At the beginning of the 21st century, international relations in South America are developing in a paradigm of regionalization, manifested in emergence of multiple social associations on the continent, linked to each other not only geographically but also functionally. In parallel, trends of fragmentation and polarization, resulting from the crisis of Latin American multilateralism and from political heterogeneity established by the results of the next electoral period, are directly or indirectly influencing the nature of regional relations. In this context, and given their impact on regional affairs, the analysis of the current state of relations between Argentina and Brazil, characterized by polarized positions on a range of issues, deserves particular attention. The author chose a systemic approach to the analysis of international relations and the current foreign policy situation as the main methodological tool to achieve the goal of research. This, in turn, allowed the author of this article to consider South America as a regional subsystem, within which political systems and regimes compete, including for the choice of the vector of sub-regional development. The article demonstrates that recently the Argentine-Brazilian contradictions have fueled and strengthened political and ideological heterogeneity of the whole South American continent. In addition, the author cites different visions of formats and vectors of integration development of associations and subregional organizations in South America. According to the author, the actions of the governments of Alberto Fernández and Jair Bolsonaro make it quite difficult to implement and put in practice the necessary measures and formulated strategic goals, as well as to determine the vector of future development for Latin American states.

In-vivo data-driven parcellation of Heschl’s gyrus using structural connectivity

The human auditory cortex around Heschl’s gyrus (HG) exhibits diverging patterns across individuals owing to the heterogeneity of its substructures. In this study, we investigated the subregions of the human auditory cortex using data-driven machine-learning techniques at the individual level and assessed their structural and functional profiles. We studied an openly accessible large dataset of the Human Connectome Project and identified the subregions of the HG in humans using data-driven clustering techniques with individually calculated imaging features of cortical folding and structural connectivity information obtained via diffusion magnetic resonance imaging tractography. We characterized the structural and functional profiles of each HG subregion according to the cortical morphology, microstructure, and functional connectivity at rest. We found three subregions. The first subregion (HG1) occupied the central portion of HG, the second subregion (HG2) occupied the medial-posterior-superior part of HG, and the third subregion (HG3) occupied the lateral-anterior-inferior part of HG. The HG3 exhibited strong structural and functional connectivity to the association and paralimbic areas, and the HG1 exhibited a higher myelin density and larger cortical thickness than other subregions. A functional gradient analysis revealed a gradual axis expanding from the HG2 to the HG3. Our findings clarify the individually varying structural and functional organization of human HG subregions and provide insights into the substructures of the human auditory cortex.

Exporting the Luxembourg Rail Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment to Africa

Abstract This article recommends the Cape Town Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment and appeals to African countries to accede to the Luxembourg Protocol on Railway Rolling Stock (Rail Protocol). The discussion in this article focuses on the extent to which Article XXII of the Rail Protocol can be applied with respect to Africa. The article critically analyses the competence of the African Economic Community (AEC) and its sub-regional organizations to accede to the Cape Town Convention and Rail Protocol. The author provides a detailed argumentative analysis of the legal mandate of the AEC and the influence of African Union (AU) laws on the competence of the AEC’s sub-regional organizations to make declarations under the Cape Town Convention and Rail Protocol. The analysis confirms that competence to accede to the Convention and Rail Protocol resides with sovereign States in Africa and not with the AU, the AEC, the Organisation pour l’harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires, or any existing sub-regional organization in Africa.

Re-Thinking Pan-Africanism and African Integration

It is 129 years since an African-American journalist in Chicago coined the word “Pan-Africanism”. Pan-Africanism began as a gift of the diaspora to the African continent. These civil society initiatives in the diaspora culminated in an elaborate permanent, continental, state-centric institutionalisation, starting six decades ago with the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. Its current dispensation is the African Union, and sub-regional organisations such as the Economic Community of West African States, the East African Community, and the Southern African Development Community. Diplomacy, peace-making, and economic integration have been prominent dimensions of Pan-African endeavours. As well as the continuing growth of African diasporas in countries ranging from the USA to China, we need to note the precarious position of growing intra-African diasporas in other African countries. Pan-Africanism will remain fragile until it can grow mass support, as opposed to being usually limited to intellectuals and some members of the ruling elites. African integration has not yet achieved the extraordinary supra-national aspirations enunciated in its treaties. Taken literally, they would require such significant concessions of national sovereignty as to amount to a post-Westphalian dispensation. But dense, overlapping networks of inter-governmental organisations, and continental NGOs, continue to proliferate and have substantial successes to date. These range from multi-lateral peace-enforcement expeditionary forces, to free trade areas and the start of common markets. Diplomatic alliances mark the essence of most sub-regional organisations and explain why they continue to thrive, notwithstanding the “spaghetti bowl” incomprehension of some economists and law scholars about their entanglement. We can confidently predict the continued growth of inter-governmental organising, sub-regional and continental NGOs, and Pan-African corporate expansion of an order of magnitude above what currently exists.

The impact of the shadow economy on economic growth and CO2 emissions: evidence from ECOWAS countries.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is one of the most dynamic African sub-regional organizations in several areas, such as economic integration and environmental conservation. On the other hand, it is also one of the sub-regions with the largest size of the shadow economy in the world. This article empirically explores the impact of the shadow economy on economic growth and CO2 emissions in ECOWAS countries. Using system generalized method of moment (SGMM) and common correlated effects mean group (CCEMG) estimators on annualdata from 14 ECOWAS countries over the period 1991-2016, the results suggest that the shadow economy decreases economic growth and CO2 emissions. However, the impact of the shadow economy on economic growth is more significant and higher than that on CO2 emissions. The results also indicate that industrialization and urbanization tend to increase economic growth and CO2 emissions in these countries.

The Gulf Cooperation Council and the Failure of Peacebuilding in Yemen

ABSTRACT Driven by increasing self-confidence and encouraged by Western states, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states have gained a prominent role in multilateral efforts to foster peacebuilding in Yemen since the country experienced increased conflict from 2004 onwards. Based on the “negative and positive peace framework” proposed by Johan Galtung, it is possible to argue that the lack of focus of the GCC on fostering “positive peace” and disagreements between the Gulf monarchies heightened by hyper-nationalist tendencies inhibit the ability of this sub-regional organisation to facilitate peacebuilding in Yemen.

The Competing Mediations in the Post-Qaddafi Libyan Political Crisis

Abstract Since the end of the revolution that toppled the rule of Muammar Qaddafi in October 2011, Libya has never known peace. The country descended into civil war with different factions contending for control. In this milieu, the United Nations attempted to mediate an end to the crisis but its efforts have failed to gain traction partly as a result of other mediation initiatives undertaken by several European actors. Sub-regional and continental organizations, including the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) and the African Union (AU) respectively, that should have taken the lead in the mediation have been absent. Meanwhile, continued fighting has hampered a mediated settlement, and terrorist groups such as the Islamic State (IS) and al-Qaeda have taken advantage of the situation to establish a presence in the country. In the end, rather than ending the crisis, Libya has provided the ground for competing mediation processes which have prolonged the crisis.